Details

<p>Preface xvii</p> <p><b>1 Sources of Energy and Technologies 1</b></p> <p>1.1 Energy Uses in Different Countries 1</p> <p>1.2 Energy Sources 3</p> <p>1.2.1 Non-Renewable Energy Resources 3</p> <p>1.2.2 Renewable Sources of Energy 3</p> <p>1.3 Energy and Environment 5</p> <p>1.3.1 Climate Change 7</p> <p>1.4 Review of Technologies for Renewable Energy System 8</p> <p>1.4.1 Fluid Dynamics 8</p> <p>1.4.1.1 Conservation of Mass 8</p> <p>1.4.1.2 Conservation of Momentum 9</p> <p>1.4.1.3 Conservation of Energy 10</p> <p>1.5 Thermodynamics 11</p> <p>1.5.1 Enthalpy 12</p> <p>1.5.2 Specific Heat 12</p> <p>1.5.3 Zeroth Law 13</p> <p>1.5.4 First Law 13</p> <p>1.5.4.1 Limitations of First law 14</p> <p>1.5.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics 14</p> <p>1.5.5.1 Kelvin–Planck Statement 15</p> <p>1.5.5.2 Clausius Statement 16</p> <p>1.5.6 Third Law of Thermodynamics 16</p> <p>1.6 Thermodynamic Power Cycles 16</p> <p>1.6.1 Ideal Cycle (Carnot Cycle) 17</p> <p>1.6.2 Rankine Cycle 18</p> <p>1.6.3 Brayton Cycle 18</p> <p>1.7 Summary 21</p> <p>References 21</p> <p><b>2 Power Electronic Converters 23</b></p> <p>2.1 Types of Power Electronic Converters 23</p> <p>2.2 Power Semiconductor Devices 23</p> <p>2.2.1 Thyristor 25</p> <p>2.2.1.1 Line Commutation 25</p> <p>2.2.1.2 Load Commutation 26</p> <p>2.2.1.3 Forced Commutation 26</p> <p>2.2.2 Gate Turn-OffThyristor (GTO) 26</p> <p>2.2.3 Power Bipolar Junction Transistor 27</p> <p>2.2.4 Power MOSFET 29</p> <p>2.2.5 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) 29</p> <p>2.3 ac-to-dc Converters 30</p> <p>2.3.1 Single-Phase Diode Bridge Rectifiers 31</p> <p>2.3.2 Three-Phase Full-Wave Bridge Diode Rectifiers 32</p> <p>2.3.3 Single-Phase Fully Controlled Rectifiers 32</p> <p>2.3.4 Three-Phase Fully Controlled Bridge Converter 33</p> <p>2.4 dc-to-ac Converters (Inverters) 34</p> <p>2.4.1 Single-Phase Voltage Source Inverters 34</p> <p>2.4.2 Square-Wave PWMInverter 34</p> <p>2.4.3 Single-Pulse-WidthModulation 35</p> <p>2.4.4 Multiple-Pulse-WidthModulation 36</p> <p>2.4.5 Sinusoidal-Pulse-WidthModulation 36</p> <p>2.4.6 Three-Phase Voltage Source Inverters 37</p> <p>2.4.7 Single-Phase Current Source Inverters 39</p> <p>2.4.7.1 Three-Phase Current Source Inverter 39</p> <p>2.5 Multilevel Inverters 40</p> <p>2.5.1 Diode-Clamped Multilevel Inverter 41</p> <p>2.5.2 Flying-Capacitor Multilevel Inverter 42</p> <p>2.5.3 Cascaded Multicell with Different dc Source Inverter 43</p> <p>2.6 Resonant Converters 43</p> <p>2.6.1 Series Resonant Converter 44</p> <p>2.6.1.1 Discontinuous Conduction Mode 45</p> <p>2.6.2 Parallel Resonant Inverter 45</p> <p>2.6.3 ZCS Resonant Converters 45</p> <p>2.6.4 ZVS Resonant Converter 46</p> <p>2.6.5 Resonant dc-Link Inverters 46</p> <p>2.7 Matrix Converters 47</p> <p>2.8 Summary 48</p> <p>References 48</p> <p><b>3 Renewable Energy Generator Technology 51</b></p> <p>3.1 Energy Conversion 51</p> <p>3.2 Power Conversion and Control ofWind Energy Systems 51</p> <p>3.2.1 Induction Generator 52</p> <p>3.2.2 Permanent Magnet Synchronous Generator 53</p> <p>3.2.3 Linear PM Synchronous Machine 53</p> <p>3.3 Operation and Control of Induction Generators forWES 53</p> <p>3.3.1 Equivalent Circuit 54</p> <p>3.3.2 Wound-Rotor Induction Machine 55</p> <p>3.3.3 Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) 57</p> <p>3.3.3.1 Equivalent Circuit of DGIG 59</p> <p>3.3.3.2 Braking System 60</p> <p>3.4 PermanentMagnet Synchronous Generator 60</p> <p>3.4.1 Modelling of PMSG 62</p> <p>3.5 Wave Energy Conversion (WEC) Technologies 63</p> <p>3.5.1 Linear Permanent Magnet Synchronous Machine 64</p> <p>3.5.2 Tubular Permanent Magnet LinearWave Generator (TPMLWG) 66</p> <p>3.5.3 Linear Induction Machines 67</p> <p>3.6 Summary 67</p> <p>References 68</p> <p><b>4 Grid-Scale Energy Storage 69</b></p> <p>4.1 Requirement of Energy Storage 69</p> <p>4.2 Types of Energy Storage Technologies 69</p> <p>4.3 Electromechanical Storage 70</p> <p>4.3.1 Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS) System 70</p> <p>4.3.2 Underground Pumped Hydro Energy Storage 71</p> <p>4.3.3 Compressed Air Energy Storage 72</p> <p>4.3.4 Flywheel Storage 73</p> <p>4.3.4.1 Energy Stored in Flywheel 74</p> <p>4.3.4.2 Motors for Flywheels 74</p> <p>4.4 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage 75</p> <p>4.5 Supercapacitors 76</p> <p>4.5.1 Equivalent Circuit 79</p> <p>4.6 Chemical Storage (Batteries) 79</p> <p>4.6.1 Lead–acid Battery 80</p> <p>4.6.2 UltraBattery 82</p> <p>4.6.3 Lithium-ion Battery 84</p> <p>4.6.4 Liquid metal battery 86</p> <p>4.6.5 Flow Battery 86</p> <p>4.6.6 Nickle-Based Battery 87</p> <p>4.7 Thermal Storage 88</p> <p>4.7.1 Sensible Heat Storage 89</p> <p>4.7.2 Latent Heat Storage 90</p> <p>4.7.3 Thermochemical Energy Storage (TES) 91</p> <p>4.8 Hydrogen Energy Storage Technology 91</p> <p>4.9 Summary 92</p> <p>References 93</p> <p><b>5 Solar Energy Systems 95</b></p> <p>5.1 Sun as Source of Energy 95</p> <p>5.2 Solar Radiations on Earth 95</p> <p>5.2.1 Spectral Distribution of Solar Energy 96</p> <p>5.3 Measurement of Solar Radiation 97</p> <p>5.3.1 Pyrheliometer 97</p> <p>5.3.2 Pyranometer 99</p> <p>5.3.3 Sources of Errors in RadiationMeters 100</p> <p>5.3.4 Sunshine Recorder 100</p> <p>5.4 Solar Radiation on Different Surfaces 101</p> <p>5.4.1 Zenith and Zenith Angle 101</p> <p>5.4.2 Solar Time 102</p> <p>5.4.3 Latitude (∅) 102</p> <p>5.4.4 Declination Angle (;;) 102</p> <p>5.4.5 Hour Angle (;;) 102</p> <p>5.4.6 Surface Azimuth Angle (Y) 103</p> <p>5.4.7 Tilt Angle (;;) 103</p> <p>5.4.8 Angle of Incidence 103</p> <p>5.4.9 Solar Radiation on an Inclined Surface 104</p> <p>5.5 Utilization of Solar Energy 104</p> <p>5.6 Solar Thermal Systems 105</p> <p>5.6.1 Flat-Plate Collectors 106</p> <p>5.6.1.1 Thermal Performance of Collector 108</p> <p>5.6.2 Evacuated Tube Collector 108</p> <p>5.6.2.1 Direct-Flow Evacuated Tube Collector 109</p> <p>5.6.2.2 Heat-Pipe Evacuated Tube Collector 109</p> <p>5.6.3 Parabolic Collectors 111</p> <p>5.6.4 Linear Fresnel Reflector (LFR) 112</p> <p>5.6.5 Parabolic Trough Collector (PTC) 113</p> <p>5.6.6 Cylindrical Trough Collector (CTC) 114</p> <p>5.6.7 Parabolic Dish Reflector 115</p> <p>5.6.8 Heliostat Field Collector (HFC) 116</p> <p>5.7 Application of Solar Energy 117</p> <p>5.7.1 SolarWater Heating 117</p> <p>5.7.2 Passive Systems with Thermosiphon Circulation 117</p> <p>5.7.3 Integrated Collector Storage Systems (Passive) 119</p> <p>5.7.4 Active Solar Systems 119</p> <p>5.7.4.1 Direct Circulation Systems 119</p> <p>5.7.4.2 Indirect Circulation (Closed-Loop) Systems 120</p> <p>5.7.5 Air Heating Systems 120</p> <p>5.8 Solar Thermal Power Generation 122</p> <p>5.9 Desalination ofWater 122</p> <p>5.10 Steam Pressurization Systems Using Heat Energy 123</p> <p>5.11 Summary 124</p> <p>References 124</p> <p><b>6 Photovoltaic Systems 125</b></p> <p>6.1 PV Solar Cells and Solar Module 125</p> <p>6.1.1 Semiconductor Technology 126</p> <p>6.2 Solar Cell Characteristics 127</p> <p>6.2.1 Equivalent Circuit 129</p> <p>6.2.2 Solar PV Module 129</p> <p>6.2.3 Series and Parallel Connections of Cells 129</p> <p>6.2.4 Solar PV Panel 131</p> <p>6.2.5 PV Array 132</p> <p>6.2.5.1 Design of PV System 132</p> <p>6.3 Maximizing Power Output of PV Array 133</p> <p>6.3.1 Solar Tracking 134</p> <p>6.3.2 Design of Simple Automatic Solar Tracker 134</p> <p>6.3.3 Load Matching for Optimal Operation 135</p> <p>6.4 Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithm 135</p> <p>6.4.1 Constant-VoltageMethod 136</p> <p>6.4.2 Hill-Climbing/Perturb and Observe Techniques 136</p> <p>6.4.2.1 Perturb and Observe 137</p> <p>6.4.3 Incremental Conductance (IC) 137</p> <p>6.5 Types of Solar Cells and Technologies 138</p> <p>6.5.1 Crystalline Solar Cells 138</p> <p>6.5.1.1 Monocrystalline Solar Cells 139</p> <p>6.5.1.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Cells 140</p> <p>6.6 Thin-Film Solar Cells 140</p> <p>6.6.1 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cells (a-Si) 141</p> <p>6.6.2 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 142</p> <p>6.6.3 Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS) 143</p> <p>6.6.4 Copper Indium Selenide (CIS) 143</p> <p>6.6.5 Crystalline Silicon (c-si)Thin-Film Solar Cells 144</p> <p>6.7 Concentrating Photovoltaic Systems 144</p> <p>6.8 New Emerging Technologies 144</p> <p>6.9 Solar PV Systems 146</p> <p>6.9.1 Grid-Connected PV System 147</p> <p>6.9.2 Grid-Connected System without Battery Storage 147</p> <p>6.9.3 Grid-Connected System with Battery Storage 148</p> <p>6.10 Design and Control of Stand-Alone PV System 148</p> <p>6.10.1 Battery Rating 149</p> <p>6.11 Summary 150</p> <p>References 150</p> <p><b>7 Wind Energy 153</b></p> <p>7.1 Wind as Source of Energy 153</p> <p>7.1.1 Origin ofWind 153</p> <p>7.1.2 Wind Power Potential 154</p> <p>7.2 Power and Energy inWind 155</p> <p>7.3 Aerodynamics ofWind Turbines 156</p> <p>7.3.1 Momentum 157</p> <p>7.4 Types ofWind Turbines 160</p> <p>7.4.1 Horizontal-AxisWind Turbines 160</p> <p>7.4.1.1 Horizontal-AxisWind Turbines withWake Rotation 161</p> <p>7.4.2 Vertical-AxisWind Turbines 164</p> <p>7.4.3 Main Components ofWind Turbine 166</p> <p>7.4.3.1 Drive Train 167</p> <p>7.5 Dynamics and Control ofWind Turbines 167</p> <p>7.5.1 Pitch Control 168</p> <p>7.5.2 Yaw Control 169</p> <p>7.5.3 Passive and Active Stall Power Control 169</p> <p>7.5.3.1 Passive Stall Control 169</p> <p>7.5.3.2 Active Stall Control 169</p> <p>7.6 Wind Turbine ConditionMonitoring 170</p> <p>7.7 Wind Energy Conversion Systems (WECS) 171</p> <p>7.7.1 Based on Capacity of Power Generation 171</p> <p>7.7.2 Systems without Power Electronics 171</p> <p>7.8 OffshoreWind Energy 174</p> <p>7.8.1 OffshoreWind Turbines 174</p> <p>7.8.2 Foundation 174</p> <p>7.8.3 Electrical Connection and Installation 174</p> <p>7.8.4 Operation and Maintenance 175</p> <p>7.9 Advantages of OffshoreWind Energy Systems 175</p> <p>7.10 Environmental Impact ofWind Energy Systems 175</p> <p>7.10.1 Impact of Noise 175</p> <p>7.10.2 Electromagnetic Interference 176</p> <p>7.11 Combining theWind Power Generation System with Energy</p> <p>Storage 176</p> <p>7.12 Summary 176</p> <p>References 176</p> <p><b>8 Biomass Energy Systems 179</b></p> <p>8.1 Biomass Energy 179</p> <p>8.2 Biomass Production 181</p> <p>8.2.1 Forest Industries 182</p> <p>8.2.2 Forest Residues 182</p> <p>8.2.2.1 ForestThinnings 183</p> <p>8.2.3 Agriculture Residues 183</p> <p>8.2.4 Energy Crops 183</p> <p>8.2.5 Food and IndustrialWastes 184</p> <p>8.3 Biomass Conversion Process 185</p> <p>8.4 Thermochemical Conversion 185</p> <p>8.4.1 Combustion 185</p> <p>8.4.2 Gasification 186</p> <p>8.4.2.1 Applications 190</p> <p>8.4.3 Pyrolysis 190</p> <p>8.4.3.1 Torrefaction 193</p> <p>8.4.4 Liquefaction 194</p> <p>8.5 Biochemical/Biological Conversion 194</p> <p>8.5.1 Fermentation 195</p> <p>8.5.2 Anaerobic Digestion 196</p> <p>8.5.3 Anaerobic Digestion Technologies Suitable for Dairy Manure 198</p> <p>8.6 Classification of Biogas Plants 199</p> <p>8.7 Mechanical Extraction (with Esterification) 200</p> <p>8.8 Municipal SolidWaste to Energy Conversion 201</p> <p>8.9 The Production of Electricity fromWood and Other Solid Biomass 203</p> <p>8.10 Summary 205</p> <p>References 205</p> <p><b>9 Geothermal Energy 207</b></p> <p>9.1 The Origin of Geothermal Energy 207</p> <p>9.2 Types of Geothermal Resources 208</p> <p>9.3 Hydrothermal Resources 210</p> <p>9.3.1 Vapour-Dominated Systems 211</p> <p>9.3.2 Water-Dominated Systems 212</p> <p>9.4 The Geopressured Resources 213</p> <p>9.5 Hard Rock Resources 214</p> <p>9.5.1 Solidified (Hot Dry Rock Resources) 214</p> <p>9.5.2 Part Still Molten (Magma) 214</p> <p>9.6 Energy Contents of Geothermal Resources 215</p> <p>9.6.1 Hard Dry Rock Resources 215</p> <p>9.7 Exploration of Geothermal Resources 216</p> <p>9.8 Geophysical Methods in Geothermal Exploration 217</p> <p>9.8.1 Thermal Methods 217</p> <p>9.8.2 Electrical Methods 217</p> <p>9.8.3 MagneticMeasurements 218</p> <p>9.9 Geochemical Techniques 219</p> <p>9.9.1 Water or Solute Geothermometers 219</p> <p>9.9.1.1 Na-K Geothermometer 219</p> <p>9.9.1.2 Na-K-Ca Geothermometer 220</p> <p>9.9.2 Gas Thermometers 220</p> <p>9.9.3 Isotopes 220</p> <p>9.9.4 Drilling 220</p> <p>9.10 Utilization of Geothermal Resource 221</p> <p>9.10.1 Electricity Generation from Geothermal Resources 222</p> <p>9.10.2 Dry Steam Power Plants 222</p> <p>9.10.3 Single-Flash Steam Power Plant 223</p> <p>9.10.4 Double-Flash Power Plant 225</p> <p>9.10.5 Binary Cycle Power Plant 226</p> <p>9.11 Enhanced Geothermal Systems 227</p> <p>9.11.1 Combined or Hybrid Plants 227</p> <p>9.11.2 Combined Heat and Power (CHP) Plants 227</p> <p>9.12 Direct Use of Geothermal Energy 228</p> <p>9.13 Environmental Impact 230</p> <p>9.14 Summary 231</p> <p>References 231</p> <p><b>10 Ocean Energy 233</b></p> <p>10.1 Energy from Ocean 233</p> <p>10.2 Harnessing the Tidal Energy 235</p> <p>10.2.1 Tidal Barrage Power 236</p> <p>10.2.2 Tidal Barrage Technologies 236</p> <p>10.2.3 Tidal Stream Power 237</p> <p>10.2.4 Dynamic Tidal Power Generation 238</p> <p>10.3 Energy of Tides 238</p> <p>10.4 Turbine Technologies 240</p> <p>10.4.1 Horizontal-Axis Turbines 240</p> <p>10.4.2 Vertical-Axis Turbines 241</p> <p>10.4.3 Reciprocating Hydrofoils 242</p> <p>10.5 Support Structure 242</p> <p>10.5.1 Gravity Structures 242</p> <p>10.5.2 Piled Structures 242</p> <p>10.5.3 Floating Foundations 243</p> <p>10.6 Wave Energy 243</p> <p>10.6.1 Wave Energy and Power 243</p> <p>10.7 Wave Energy Converters 245</p> <p>10.7.1 OscillatingWater Column 245</p> <p>10.7.2 Oscillating Body 246</p> <p>10.7.3 Overtopping Converters (or Terminators) 246</p> <p>10.7.4 Point Absorbers and Attenuators 247</p> <p>10.8 Power Takeoff Systems 248</p> <p>10.8.1 Air Turbines for OWC 249</p> <p>10.8.2 Hydraulic Systems 249</p> <p>10.8.3 Water Turbines 250</p> <p>10.8.4 Direct Drive 250</p> <p>10.9 Piezoelectric Generators 252</p> <p>10.9.1 Power Extraction Systems 253</p> <p>10.10 OceanThermal Energy Conversion 254</p> <p>10.10.1 Technology for OTEC 254</p> <p>10.10.1.1 Closed-Cycle 255</p> <p>10.10.1.2 Open-Cycle 256</p> <p>10.10.1.3 Hybrid Systems 257</p> <p>10.11 Summary 258</p> <p>References 258</p> <p><b>11 Fuel Cells 261</b></p> <p>11.1 Fuel Cell Technologies 261</p> <p>11.2 Types of Fuel Cells 262</p> <p>11.3 Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell 262</p> <p>11.3.1 Water Management 263</p> <p>11.3.2 Fuel Requirement 265</p> <p>11.3.3 Reforming Technologies 265</p> <p>11.3.3.1 Partial Oxidation 266</p> <p>11.3.4 Hydrogen Storage 266</p> <p>11.3.5 Catalysts for PEM Fuel Cell 267</p> <p>11.4 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell 267</p> <p>11.4.1 Electrolytes for SOFC 268</p> <p>11.5 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell 269</p> <p>11.6 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell 270</p> <p>11.7 Alkaline Fuel Cell 272</p> <p>11.8 Direct Methanol Fuel Cell 274</p> <p>11.8.1 CO Removal 276</p> <p>11.9 Fuel Cell Stacks 276</p> <p>11.9.1 Cooling with Separate Airflow 277</p> <p>11.9.2 Liquid Cooling 277</p> <p>11.10 Fuel Cell Applications 278</p> <p>11.10.1 Application in Automobile Industry 278</p> <p>11.10.2 Stationary Power Applications 278</p> <p>11.10.3 Portable Applications 279</p> <p>11.11 Modelling of Fuel Cell 280</p> <p>11.11.1 Steady-StateModel 280</p> <p>11.12 Summary 281</p> <p>References 281</p> <p><b>12 Small Hydropower Plant 283</b></p> <p>12.1 Hydropower 283</p> <p>12.2 Classification of Hydropower Plants 284</p> <p>12.2.1 Basics of Hydropower Generation 285</p> <p>12.3 Resource Assessment 285</p> <p>12.3.1 Velocity Area Method 286</p> <p>12.3.2 Float Method 287</p> <p>12.4 System Components 288</p> <p>12.4.1 DiversionWeir 288</p> <p>12.4.1.1 Side Intake withoutWeir 288</p> <p>12.4.1.2 Side Intake withWeir 288</p> <p>12.4.1.3 Bottom Intake 288</p> <p>12.4.2 Water Conductor System or Channels 289</p> <p>12.4.3 Forebay Tank 289</p> <p>12.4.4 Penstock 289</p> <p>12.4.5 Spillways 289</p> <p>12.5 Turbines 290</p> <p>12.6 Impulse Turbines 290</p> <p>12.6.1 Pelton Turbine 291</p> <p>12.6.2 Cross-Flow Turbine 292</p> <p>12.6.3 Turgo Turbine 293</p> <p>12.7 Reaction Turbine 294</p> <p>12.7.1 The Propeller Turbine 295</p> <p>12.7.2 Reverse Pump Turbines 295</p> <p>12.8 Generators for Small Hydro Plants 296</p> <p>12.9 Design Considerations of Micro-Hydropower Plants 297</p> <p>12.9.1 Example 299</p> <p>References 299</p> <p><b>13 Control of Grid-Connected Photovoltaic and Wind Energy Systems 301</b></p> <p>13.1 Introduction 301</p> <p>13.2 Operation and Control of Grid-Connected PV System 302</p> <p>13.2.1 Control of Single-Phase PV System 302</p> <p>13.2.1.1 Control of PV-Side dc/dc Converter 303</p> <p>13.2.1.2 Control of Grid-Side Inverter 304</p> <p>13.2.1.3 Inner Current Loop 305</p> <p>13.3 Grid Synchronization 305</p> <p>13.4 Control of Three-Phase Grid-Connected PV system 306</p> <p>13.5 Selection of Inverter for PV System 307</p> <p>13.5.1 Central Inverters 307</p> <p>13.5.2 String Inverter 308</p> <p>13.5.3 ac Module Inverter 309</p> <p>13.5.4 Multi-String Inverters 310</p> <p>13.6 Power Decoupling 311</p> <p>13.7 Isolation Between Input and Output 311</p> <p>13.8 Transformers and Interconnections 311</p> <p>13.8.1 Transformerless PV Inverter Topologies 312</p> <p>13.9 Filters for Grid-Connected PV Inverters 314</p> <p>13.10 Islanding DetectionMethods 314</p> <p>13.11 Operation and Control of Grid-ConnectedWind Energy System 315</p> <p>13.11.1 Grid Integration ofWind Turbine System 316</p> <p>13.11.2 Power Electronics inWind Energy System 317</p> <p>13.11.3 Control of Doubly Fed Induction Generator–BasedWind Turbine Systems 318</p> <p>13.11.3.1 Control of a DFIG under Unbalanced Grid 319</p> <p>13.11.4 PMSG-BasedWind Energy Conversion System 320</p> <p>13.11.4.1 Current-Source-Based PMSG 321</p> <p>13.12 Summary 322</p> <p>References 322</p> <p><b>14 Renewable Energy Sources Integration in Microgrid 325</b></p> <p>14.1 Microgrid 325</p> <p>14.2 Types of Microgrids 327</p> <p>14.3 dc Microgrid 327</p> <p>14.3.1 Control Methods for dc Grid System 329</p> <p>14.3.2 Energy Storage System 330</p> <p>14.3.3 Operational Modes of dc Microgrid 330</p> <p>14.3.3.1 Mode 1: IslandingMode (Battery Discharge) 330</p> <p>14.3.3.2 Mode 2: IslandingMode (Excess Power Available) 331</p> <p>14.3.3.3 Mode 3: Grid-Connected Mode (Power Taken from Grid) 331</p> <p>14.3.3.4 Mode 4: Grid-Connected Mode (Power Supplied to Grid) 332</p> <p>14.3.4 Application of dc Microgrids 332</p> <p>14.4 ac Microgrid 332</p> <p>14.4.1 Interconnected or Grid-Connected Mode 333</p> <p>14.4.2 Islanded Mode 334</p> <p>14.5 Control of ac Microgrid in Grid-Connected Mode 334</p> <p>14.5.1 Primary Control 337</p> <p>14.5.2 Secondary Control 337</p> <p>14.5.3 Tertiary Control 338</p> <p>14.6 Autonomous Operation of Microgrid 338</p> <p>14.6.1 Islanding Detection 339</p> <p>14.6.1.1 ImpedanceMeasurement Method 340</p> <p>14.6.1.2 Slip-Mode Frequency Shift (SMS) Method 340</p> <p>14.6.1.3 Active Frequency Drift Method 340</p> <p>14.6.1.4 Sandia Frequency Shift (SFS) 341</p> <p>14.6.2 Stability Issues 342</p> <p>14.7 Load Frequency Control in Microgrid 342</p> <p>14.7.1 Secondary Load-Frequency Control 343</p> <p>14.8 Combined ac/dc Microgrid 343</p> <p>14.8.1 Operation and Control of Hybrid ac/dc Grid 344</p> <p>14.8.2 Modelling 345</p> <p>14.9 Summary 345</p> <p>References 345</p> <p>Index 347</p> <p> </p>

<p><b>MUKHTAR AHMAD, P<small>H</small>D,</b> is a retired professor from Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), Aligarh, India. He has a wide range of professional experience, beginning with lecturer in electrical engineering at AMU to becoming a Professor at three different Universities (Aligarh Muslim University, University Putra Malaysia, and Multimedia University Malaysia). Mukhtar has published work in journals, papers, and his own books.

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