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<p><b>Introduction</b><b> 1</b></p> <p>About This Book 1</p> <p>Conventions Used in This Book 2</p> <p>What You’re Not to Read 3</p> <p>Foolish Assumptions 3</p> <p>How This Book Is Organized 3</p> <p>Part 1: Here Comes the Sun: Shedding Some Light on PV Systems 4</p> <p>Part 2: Digging into Complete System Details 4</p> <p>Part 3: Sizing a PV System 4</p> <p>Part 4: Installing a PV System 4</p> <p>Part 5: The Part of Tens 5</p> <p>Icons Used in This Book 5</p> <p>Where to Go from Here 5</p> <p><b>Part 1: Here Comes the Sun: Shedding Some Light on PV Systems</b><b> 7</b></p> <p><b>Chapter 1: The Photovoltaic Revolution</b><b> 9</b></p> <p>Peeking into the Past, Present, and Future of PV Installations 9</p> <p>Acquainting yourself with typical PV applications 10</p> <p>Checking out PV pros and cons 10</p> <p>Looking into the future of PV 11</p> <p>Introducing PV Components and Systems 11</p> <p>Knowing Your Electricity A-B-Cs 12</p> <p>Solar Resource 101 13</p> <p>Surveying a PV System Site 13</p> <p>Delving into PV System Details 14</p> <p>PV modules 14</p> <p>Batteries 14</p> <p>Charge controllers 15</p> <p>Inverters 15</p> <p>Wiring and safety devices 15</p> <p>Sizing a PV System 16</p> <p>Grid-direct systems 16</p> <p>Battery-based systems 16</p> <p>Conductors and safety devices 17</p> <p>Bringing a PV System to Life 17</p> <p>Permitting 17</p> <p>Staying safe 17</p> <p>Putting together the mechanical parts 18</p> <p>Adding the electrical parts 18</p> <p>Commissioning, inspecting, and maintaining a system 19</p> <p>Introducing the Sections of Code You Need to Know 20</p> <p><b>Chapter 2: Checking Out Common Components and Systems</b><b> 21</b></p> <p>Introducing the Components That Make Up PV Systems 21</p> <p>PV modules and racking 22</p> <p>Battery bank 23</p> <p>Charge controller 24</p> <p>Inverter 24</p> <p>Loads 25</p> <p>Load centers 26</p> <p>Disconnects and overcurrent protection 27</p> <p>Utility interconnection 27</p> <p>Differentiating between PV System Types 29</p> <p>Grid-direct systems 29</p> <p>Battery-based systems 31</p> <p>Figuring Out the Right System Type for Any Situation 34</p> <p>The customer is connected to the grid 34</p> <p>The customer isn’t connected to the grid 35</p> <p><b>Chapter 3: Powering through Electricity Basics</b><b> 37</b></p> <p>Going with the Flow: Current 38</p> <p>Understanding amps 38</p> <p>Distinguishing between direct current and alternating current 39</p> <p>Measuring current with a meter 40</p> <p>May the (Electromotive) Force Be with You: Voltage 43</p> <p>Grasping the concept of voltage 43</p> <p>Getting a grip on nominal voltage and operating voltage 43</p> <p>Measuring voltage 44</p> <p>Making a Stop: Resistance 46</p> <p>Introducing ohms 47</p> <p>Measuring resistance 47</p> <p>Connecting Current, Voltage, and Resistance with Ohm’s Law 49</p> <p>Pondering Power and Energy 50</p> <p>Recognizing the differences between power and energy 50</p> <p>Relating power to current, voltage, and resistance with the power equation 51</p> <p>Calculating energy in terms of watt-hours 53</p> <p>Introducing amp-hours, a companion to watt-hours 53</p> <p>Wrapping Together Current, Voltage, Resistance, Power, and Energy 54</p> <p>Another Electricity Concept: Circuit Configurations 55</p> <p>Series 56</p> <p>Parallel 57</p> <p>Series-parallel 58</p> <p><b>Chapter 4: Warming Up to the Solar Resource</b><b> 59</b></p> <p>High (Or Low) Energy: Solar Radiation 60</p> <p>Distinguishing between direct radiation and diffuse radiation 60</p> <p>Determining the intensity of solar radiation: Irradiance 61</p> <p>Calculating solar radiation energy: Irradiation 65</p> <p>Just for a day: Peak sun hours 66</p> <p>Examining the Effects of the Sun’s Path on the Earth 69</p> <p>Getting a grip on seasonal effects 70</p> <p>Understanding the sun’s relationship to your location: Altitude and azimuth 72</p> <p>Ticking off solar time 74</p> <p>Interpreting sun charts 74</p> <p>Opening up to the solar window 76</p> <p>Positioning PV Modules to Make the Most of the Solar Resource 77</p> <p>Introducing tilt angle 77</p> <p>Orienting your array to the azimuth 79</p> <p><b>Chapter 5: Properly Selecting a Site for a PV System </b><b>81</b></p> <p>Setting the Stage for a Site Survey 82</p> <p>Putting aside enough time 82</p> <p>Creating a standard site-survey form 83</p> <p>Toting a site-survey bag 83</p> <p>Picture This: Documenting Your Entire Site Survey with Digital Photos 84</p> <p>Collecting Basic Information during a Site Survey 86</p> <p>General site information 86</p> <p>Structural and mechanical information 87</p> <p>Electrical information 89</p> <p>Measuring Information in Degrees 90</p> <p>Understanding magnetic declination 91</p> <p>Calculating the array’s tilt angle and azimuth 93</p> <p>Exploring Shading-Analysis Tools 95</p> <p>Interpreting the Data and Bringing It All Together 97</p> <p>Analyzing reports from your shading-analysis tool 98</p> <p>Considering the total solar resource factor 98</p> <p>Using other collected information to plan out the design and installation 100</p> <p><b>Part 2: Digging Into Complete System Details</b><b> 103</b></p> <p><b>Chapter 6: PV Modules: From Sand to Electricity</b><b> 105</b></p> <p>Creating Solar Electricity: It All Starts with a Cell 106</p> <p>Getting a grip on cell construction and manufacturing 106</p> <p>Connecting cell construction to the photovoltaic effect 108</p> <p>Reviewing Common Types of PV Modules 108</p> <p>Checking out crystalline modules 109</p> <p>Looking at thin film modules 111</p> <p>Pointing Out Electrical Specifications on PV Modules 113</p> <p>Current specifications 114</p> <p>Voltage specifications 115</p> <p>Maximum power point 116</p> <p>Voltage temperature coefficient 117</p> <p>Power tolerance 118</p> <p>Series fuse rating 118</p> <p>Surveying Test Conditions for PV Modules 118</p> <p>Standard test conditions 119</p> <p>Environmental effects on standard test conditions 120</p> <p>Relating Current and Voltage in IV Curves 122</p> <p>An IV curve with varying temperature 123</p> <p>An IV curve with varying irradiance 124</p> <p><b>Chapter 7: The Basics of Batteries</b><b> 127</b></p> <p>The Fundamentals of Battery Anatomy and Operation 128</p> <p>Constructing a battery, from cell to bank 128</p> <p>Discovering how batteries charge and discharge 130</p> <p>Comparing Different Types of Batteries 133</p> <p>Lead-acid batteries 133</p> <p>Lead-calcium batteries 136</p> <p>Nickel-cadmium batteries 136</p> <p>Comprehending Battery Capacity 137</p> <p>Considering the C rate for capacity 137</p> <p>Recognizing factors that affect capacity 138</p> <p>Specifying Batteries 141</p> <p>Specifying the type of battery to use 141</p> <p>Specifying the battery bank size 142</p> <p><b>Chapter 8: Keeping Current and Voltage in Check: Charge Controllers </b><b>147</b></p> <p>The Essentials of Charge Controllers 148</p> <p>Seeing how a charge controller works in stages 148</p> <p>Surveying special effects provided by some charge controllers 151</p> <p>Maximum Power Point Tracking Technology 153</p> <p>How MPPT works 153</p> <p>The pros and cons of MPPT controllers 154</p> <p>Pulse-Width Modulation Technology 155</p> <p>How PWM works 155</p> <p>The pros and cons of PWM controllers 156</p> <p>Specifying a Charge Controller 156</p> <p><b>Chapter 9: Inverters: AC (From) DC</b><b> 157</b></p> <p>Getting the Goods on Grid-Direct Inverters 158</p> <p>Basic operation 158</p> <p>Standard features 159</p> <p>Power output sizes 162</p> <p>The importance of transformers 162</p> <p>Investigating Battery-Based Inverters 164</p> <p>Utility-interactive inverter operation 165</p> <p>Stand-alone inverter operation 166</p> <p>Standard features for all battery-based inverters 167</p> <p>Sizes of battery-based inverters 168</p> <p>Low-frequency transformer technology 168</p> <p>Specifying Any Inverter 168</p> <p>Grid-direct 169</p> <p>Battery-based 170</p> <p><b>Chapter 10: Staying Secure: Wiring and Safety Components</b><b> 173</b></p> <p>Defining the Circuits in a PV System 174</p> <p>Checking Out Types of Conductors 175</p> <p>USE-2 176</p> <p>PV wire 176</p> <p>Building wiring 177</p> <p>Battery wiring 178</p> <p>Ground wiring 178</p> <p>Considering Kinds of Conduit 179</p> <p>Metallic conduit 179</p> <p>Nonmetallic conduit 180</p> <p>Delving into Disconnects 181</p> <p>Perusing Overcurrent Protection Devices 182</p> <p>Circuit breakers 183</p> <p>Fuses 183</p> <p>Focusing on Ground Fault Protection 184</p> <p>Looking at the Basics of Labels 185</p> <p><b>Part 3: Sizing a PV System</b><b> 187</b></p> <p><b>Chapter 11: Sizing a Grid-Direct System</b><b> 189</b></p> <p>First Things First: Evaluating the Budget and the Available Array Area 190</p> <p>Estimating the Site’s Annual Energy Production 191</p> <p>Sizing the Array to Meet Your Client’s Energy Consumption 193</p> <p>Determining annual energy consumption 193</p> <p>Looking at contract options with the utility 194</p> <p>Using consumption and contract options to select an array’s needed power value 195</p> <p>Getting Ready to Match an Inverter to an Array 196</p> <p>Matching Power Values for an Array and an Inverter 197</p> <p>Coming Up with the Right Voltage Values for Your Array and Inverter 199</p> <p>Establishing the inverter’s AC voltage 200</p> <p>Defining the inverter’s DC voltage window 200</p> <p>Calculating the modules’ maximum DC voltage contribution 201</p> <p>Figuring out the modules’ minimum DC voltage contribution 208</p> <p>Bringing It All Together: Combining Your Power and Voltage Information 213</p> <p>One Last Check: The Inverter’s Maximum Current Input 214</p> <p><b>Chapter 12: Sizing a Battery-Based System</b><b> 215</b></p> <p>Get Loaded: Looking at Loads in a Battery-Based System 216</p> <p>Evaluating the loads that the battery bank must serve 216</p> <p>Calculating the energy required during an outage for utility-interactive systems 219</p> <p>Determining the average daily energy consumption for stand-alone systems 219</p> <p>Sizing the Battery Bank 222</p> <p>Inverter efficiency 222</p> <p>The days of autonomy 223</p> <p>The temperature used for battery operation 223</p> <p>The depth of discharge 224</p> <p>Nominal voltages 225</p> <p>Figuring out the battery capacity you need 226</p> <p>Strung along: Wiring the battery bank 227</p> <p>Sizing the PV Array 229</p> <p>Sizing the array in a utility-interactive system 229</p> <p>Sizing the array in a stand-alone system 230</p> <p>Sizing the Charge Controller 232</p> <p>Voltage specifications 233</p> <p>Power or amperage specifications 234</p> <p>A check before you move on: Comparing the array size to the battery capacity 236</p> <p>Sizing the Inverter 236</p> <p>Viewing voltage output 237</p> <p>Calculating the power draw 237</p> <p>Staying in charge 238</p> <p>Looking at surge ratings 238</p> <p>Evaluating inverter and array power output 239</p> <p>Incorporating a Generator 239</p> <p>Generator features 240</p> <p>Generator sizing 241</p> <p><b>Chapter 13: Sizing Conductors, Conduit, and Safety Components</b><b> 243</b></p> <p>Conductor Sizing 101 244</p> <p>Defining the PV circuits’ maximum and continuous current 245</p> <p>Calculating non-PV circuits’ maximum current 246</p> <p>Considering conditions of use with some handy tables 247</p> <p>Putting together the details to determine conductor sizing 250</p> <p>Accounting for voltage drop after you size your conductors 253</p> <p>Sizing Conduit 257</p> <p>Sizing Overcurrent Protection Devices and Disconnects 258</p> <p>Beginning with a few basics 258</p> <p>Placing protection on PV circuits 259</p> <p>Protecting inverter circuits 260</p> <p><b>Part 4: Installing a PV System</b><b> 261</b></p> <p><b>Chapter 14: The Permitting Process</b><b> 263</b></p> <p>Obtaining Permits before You Install a PV System 263</p> <p>In the beginning: Having the right licenses and certifications 264</p> <p>Home grown: Permitting for residential systems 265</p> <p>Big business: Permitting for commercial systems 269</p> <p>Not Just Pretty Pictures: Creating Drawing Sets 272</p> <p>Calling out components clearly 273</p> <p>Depicting equipment locations 273</p> <p>Showing conductor-sizing calculations 273</p> <p>Jotting down job notes 274</p> <p><b>Chapter 15: Staying Safe Anytime You Work on a PV System</b><b> 275</b></p> <p>Getting a Grip on General Construction Site Safety 276</p> <p>Identifying job-site obstacles and putting on protective gear right away 276</p> <p>Safely working alone and with others 277</p> <p>Taking in tips for tool safety 278</p> <p>Limiting your exposure to the elements 278</p> <p>Stowing a first-aid kit on the job site 279</p> <p>Looking at Ladder Safety 279</p> <p>Selecting your stash of ladders 279</p> <p>Properly setting up any ladder 281</p> <p>Raising the Issue of Rooftop Safety 282</p> <p>Restraining yourself with fall protection 283</p> <p>Storing your tools 283</p> <p>Maintaining safe walkways 285</p> <p>Examining Electrical Safety 285</p> <p>Staying aware of general shock hazards 285</p> <p>Working with circuits 286</p> <p>Charging Ahead with Battery Safety 290</p> <p><b>Chapter 16: Assembling the Mechanical Parts</b><b> 293</b></p> <p>Surveying PV Array Mounting Methods 294</p> <p>Roof mounting 295</p> <p>Ground mounting 300</p> <p>Top-of-pole mounting 302</p> <p>Building-integrated mounting 303</p> <p>Considering Loading When You Mount an Array on a Roof 305</p> <p>Following building codes 305</p> <p>Accounting for additional dead load 305</p> <p>Looking at live loads 307</p> <p>Properly Attaching an Array to a Roof 309</p> <p>Making attachments with lag screws 309</p> <p>Sealing roof penetrations with flashing 310</p> <p>Supporting Ground and Top-of-Pole Mounting 313</p> <p><b>Chapter 17: Integrating the Electrical Elements </b><b>315</b></p> <p>Location Is Everything: Knowing Where to Place Electrical Equipment 316</p> <p>Manufacturers’ requirements for equipment locations 316</p> <p>Locations for disconnecting means 317</p> <p>Combiner boxes and junction boxes and wiring, oh my! 318</p> <p>Working on Wiring 319</p> <p>Seeing red (and green and white): Color-coding 319</p> <p>Managing wires on PV modules 321</p> <p>Protecting wires with conduit 322</p> <p>Bonding Yourself to Grounding 323</p> <p>Equipment grounding 323</p> <p>System grounding 326</p> <p>Connecting to the Utility 329</p> <p>Determining the utility’s requirements 329</p> <p>Making a load side or line side connection 331</p> <p><b>Chapter 18: Commissioning, Inspecting, and Maintaining a PV System</b><b> 335</b></p> <p>Making a List and Checking It Twice: Preparing for Commissioning 336</p> <p>Mechanical elements? Check! 336</p> <p>Electrical elements? Check! 337</p> <p>Start ’Er Up: The Commissioning Process 341</p> <p>Putting safety first 342</p> <p>Gathering the gear you need 342</p> <p>Commissioning different types of systems 343</p> <p>Verifying that the system is working 347</p> <p>Arming Yourself for Inspection Issues 349</p> <p>Not having “a neat and workmanlike manner” 350</p> <p>Forgetting about aesthetics 350</p> <p>Failing to manage conductors on the array 350</p> <p>Neglecting to label the system 351</p> <p>Surveying System Maintenance 353</p> <p>Mechanical maintenance 354</p> <p>Electrical maintenance 354</p> <p>Maintenance on a higher level: Taking care of battery banks 355</p> <p><b>Part 5: The Part of Tens</b><b> 359</b></p> <p><b>Chapter 19: Ten Ways to Avoid Common Code Mistakes</b><b> 361</b></p> <p>Providing Proper Working Clearance 362</p> <p>Supplying the Right Structural Support 362</p> <p>Keeping Water out of Buildings with Flashing 363</p> <p>Ensuring All Conductors Have the Necessary Ratings 363</p> <p>Managing the Conductors on Modules 364</p> <p>Selecting the Correct Conduit 364</p> <p>Locating the Disconnects 365</p> <p>Grounding the Equipment 365</p> <p>Grounding the System 366</p> <p>Labeling the System Properly 366</p> <p><b>Chapter 20: Ten Ways to Maximize Energy Production for Your Clients </b><b>367</b></p> <p>Select the Right Site 367</p> <p>Orient the Array Correctly 368</p> <p>Configure the Array Properly 368</p> <p>Work within the Limits of the Utility Voltage 369</p> <p>Choose the Correct Inverter 369</p> <p>Size Conductors Appropriately 370</p> <p>Keep the Components Cool 370</p> <p>Advise Clients to Monitor Their System 371</p> <p>Clean the Array Periodically 371</p> <p>Inspect the Array Annually 372</p> <p>Index 373</p>

<p><b>Ryan Mayfield</b> has been working in the renewable energy field since 1999. He is President of Renewable Energy Associates, a consulting firm providing design, support, and educational services for commercial photovoltaic systems. He is also Photovoltaic Systems Technical Editor for <i>StarPro</i> magazine, where he regularly contributes feature articles.

<ul> <li>Design and install photovoltaic systems</li> <li>Follow processes for permitting, commissioning, inspection</li> <li>Expand your skill set for "green collar" jobs</li> </ul> <p><b>Get a grip on photovoltaic design</b> <p>Are you looking to secure a job in the exciting and dynamic field of photovoltaic design and installation? <i>Photovoltaic Design & Installation For Dummies</i> helps you understand the technologies used in all types of PV systems, from modules and batteries to charge controllers, inverters, and more. This hands-on, friendly guide covers the workings of residential and small commercial-sized photovoltaic systems, and it gives you the essentials you need to correctly and safely install a system from start to finish. <p><b>Inside…</b> <ul> <li>Advice on figuring out which system type is right for you</li> <li>System basics in layman's terms</li> <li>How to select a site for a PV</li> <li>The basics of PV modules</li> <li>Guidance for sizing PV systems</li> <li>Tips for using safety devices</li> <li>Pointers for permitting</li> <li>How to commission and inspect</li></b> </ul>

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