reading

1: COULD IT BE NOW?

13: AMERICANS

NOTES

Chapter 1

1. Eldad the Danite, in Elkan Nathan Adler, Jewish Travellers in the Middle Ages (New York, 1987), 14. For the Sambatyon and the tradition of the Tribes: Zvi Ben-Dor Benite, The Ten Lost Tribes: A World History (Oxford, 2009), 86ff; Hillel Halkin, Across the Sabbath River: In Search of a Lost Tribe of Israel (New York, 2006), 96ff.

3. The letter is in Franz Kobler, Letters of Jews Through the Ages, Volume One – From Biblical Times to the Renaissance: A Self-portrait of the Jewish People (New York, 1952), 311.

4. Abrahamo Peritsol (Abraham Farissol), Itinera Mundi Sic Dicta Nempe Cosmographia [Iggeret Orhot Olam], trans. Thomas Hyde (Oxford, 1691), 151. Hyde was professor of Arabic and Hebrew at Oxford and head librarian at the Bodleian. His translation, made with the help of Rabbi Isaac Abendani, was based on a manuscript lodged in the library which predated the first published 1586 Venice edition. Hyde accepted there could be such a river as the Sambatyon and its general whereabouts not far from the Ganges or ‘River Gozan’, while remaining heavily sceptical about the accounts of its behaviour. Marvin J. Heller, The Seventeenth Century Hebrew Book, 2 vols (Leiden, 2011), 1177. On Farissol’s geography, and the influence of messianic impulses: David B. Ruderman, The World of a Renaissance Jew: The Life and Thought of Abraham ben Mordecai Farissol (Cincinatti, 1981), 131–43.

5. David Ha-Reuveni’s own extraordinary account is in Adler, 251–328. The manuscript disappeared from the Bodleian at some point after 1867, the year in which Y. Y. Cohen used tracing paper to copy the entirety of its content by hand. The provenance is dependable enough to have convinced most scholars, in particular Aharon Zeev Aescoly, Sippur David HaReuveni (Jerusalem, 1993), of its authenticity. On David and Solomon Molkho: Moshe Idel, Messianic Mystics (New Haven, 1998), 144–52; Harris Lenowitz, Jewish Messiahs from Galilee to Crown Heights (Oxford, 1998), 103–25; Yirimiyahu Yovel, The Others Within: Split Identity, the Marrano and Emerging Modernity (Princeton, 2009), 205–8; Matt Goldish, ‘Mystical Messianism: From the Renaissance to the Enlightenment’, in Frederick E. Greenspan (ed.), Jewish Mysticism and Kabbalah: New Insights and Scholarship (New York, 2011), 120–3; Miriam Eliav-Feldon, ‘Invented Identities and Credulity in the Age of Prophecy and Exploration’, Journal of Early Modern History, 3:3 (1999), 203–32; Moti Benmelech, ‘History, Politics and Messianism: David ha’Reuveni’s Origin and Mission’, Association of Jewish Studies Review, 35:1 (April 2011), 31–60.

7. Others followed: the ‘Canton’ synagogue, also facing the piazza of the Gheto Novo, in 1532; the ‘Levantine’ in 1541; the ‘Italian’ in 1572; and the ‘Ponentine’ (Spanish–Portuguese) in 1580. On the foundation of the ghetto and the relationships between the Jewish community and the government of the republic: Robert C. Davis and Benjamin Ravid (eds.), The Jews of Early Modern Venice (Baltimore, 2001), especially the essays by David Malkiel and Benjamin Ravid; Brian Pullan, The Jews of Europe and the Inquisition of Venice, 1550– 1670 (Oxford, 1983). Riccardo Calimani, The Ghetto of Venice (Milan, 1985), is still in its way a narrative classic.

8. Katrin Kogman-Appel, ‘Illuminated Bibles and the Rewritten Bible: The Place of Moses dal Castellazzo in Early Modern Book History’, online academia.edu, 2, 1–18; Avigdor Shulvass, The Jews in the World of the Renaissance (Leiden, 1973), 240–1. On the history of the ‘Warsaw Codex’ and for a facsimile, Mendel Metzger, ‘Le pentateuque en images de l’ancienne collection Wolf de Dresde et de la communaute juive de Berlin – Codex 1164 de l’Institut historique juive de Varsovie’, in Kurt Schubert (ed.), Bilder-Pentateuch von Moses dal Castellazzo, Venedig 1521: Vollständige Faksimile Ausgabe im Original Format des Codex 1164 aus dem besitz Judisches Historisch Instituts Warschau (Vienna, 1986), 119–31.

9. Diane Wolfthal, ‘Remembering Amalek and Nebuchadnezzar: Biblical Warfare and Symbolic Violence in Two Images in Italian Renaissance Yiddish Books of Customs’, in Pia Cuneo (ed.), Artful Armies, Beautiful Battles: Art and Warfare in Early Modern Europe (Leiden, 2002), 203.

11. See Simon Schama, The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words, 1000 BCE–1492 CE (London, 2013), 415ff.

Chapter 2

1. Samuel Usque, Consolation for the Tribulations of Israel, ed. and trans. Martin A. Cohen (Philadelphia, 1964), 198a. On Usque in Ferrara and the reception of conversos there, see Renée Levine Melammed, A Question of Identity: Iberian Conversos in Historical Perspective (Oxford, 2004), 112–14.

2. The details come from the extraordinary ‘Regimento’ written in Spanish and prepared for the travellers, dated 1544, published in Aron Di Leone Leoni, The Hebrew Portuguese Nations in Antwerp and London at the Time of Charles V and Henry VIII: New Documents and Interpretations (Jersey City, 2005), 185–8, to which this account is much indebted.

5. For Gracia and Reyna Benveniste, known for most of their lives as Beatriz de Luna or Beatriz Mendes and Brianda Mendes: Cecil Roth, Doña Gracia of the House of Nasi (Philadelphia, 1947); much more recently and more firmly based on archival research, Andrée Aelion Brooks, The Woman Who Defied Kings: The Life and Times of Doña Gracia Nasi (St Paul, 2002); Marianna D. Birnbaum, The Long Journey of Gracia Mendes (Budapest, 2003). Aron Di Leone Leoni’s archival research (see above, n. 2) is constantly refining what we know of the career of the two sisters.

6. S. D. Goitein and Mordechai A. Freidman (eds.), Indian Traders of the Middle Ages: Documents from the Cairo Geniza (Leiden, 2007).

7. Herman P. Salomon and Aron Di Leone Leoni, ‘Mendes, Benveniste, de Luna, Nasci: The State of the Art (1532–1558)’, Jewish Quarterly Review, 88: 3/4 (Jan–Apr, 1998), 135–211.

8. This is Cecil Roth’s speculation in Doña Gracia, but as Aron Di Leone Leoni points out it remains conjecture.

9. The first historian to reveal this undercover world of Jews in Tudor England was Lucien Wolf, ‘The Jews in Tudor England’, in his Essays in Jewish History (London, 1934). Also see Edgar Samuel, ‘London’s Portuguese Jewish Community 1540–1573’, in Randolph Vigne and Charles Littleton (eds.), From Strangers to Citizens: The Integration of Immigrant Communities in Britain, Ireland and Colonial America 1550–1750 (Brighton, 2001).

12. Howard Tzvi Adelman, ‘The Venetian Identities of Beatrice and Brianda de Luna’, Nashim: A Journal of Jewish Women’s Studies and Gender Issues, 25 (Autumn 2013), 10–29.

13. Ibid., 15. Adelman has radically and convincingly overthrown the longstanding version of the respective characters of the two women.

14. Alice Fernand-Halpern, ‘Une grande dame juive de la Renaissance’, Revul de Paris, 36:17 (1929), 148; Jacob Reznik, Le duc Joseph de Naxas; contribution à l’histoire juive de XVIe siècle (Paris, 1936), 49; Brooks, Woman Who Defied Kings, 176.

16. Aron Di Leone Leoni, ‘Gli ebrei sefardisti a Ferrara da Ercole I a Ercole II. Nove ricerche e interpretazione’, Rassegna Mensile di Israel, 52 (1987), 407–18.

18. R. Segre, ‘La tipografia ebraica a Ferrara e la stampa della Biblia’, Italia medievale ed umanistica, 35 (1992), 305–32.

19. Kenneth Stow, ‘The Burning of the Talmud in 1553 in the Light of Sixteenth Century Catholic Attitudes towards the Talmud’, in Stow, Jewish Life in Early Modern Rome: Challenge, Conversion and Private Life (Aldershot, 2007), 1–25.

21. See Simon Schama, The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words, 1000 BCE–1492 CE (London, 2013), 368–73.

23. Maria Teresa Guerrini, ‘New Documents on Samuel Usque, the Author of the Consolaçam as Tribulaçoens de Israel’, Sefarad revistas, 61:1 (2001), 83–9.

Chapter 3

1. The description of Leone’s ideal theatre and staging, including his discussion of optics and the effects of light both in the auditorium and on stage, is taken from his Quattro Dialoghi in Materia di Rappresentazioni Sceniche. I have used the edition by Ferruccio Marotti (Milan, 1968). Leone’s whole approach represents a radical redefinition of what theatre was, away from Renaissance humanists’ concern to reinstate the classical aesthetics of Aristotle and Plato, towards the empirical practice of stagecraft, leaning heavily on optics, and the illusion of the stage as an extension of the real world. His was a forward-facing Renaissance dramaturgy.

2. There are good introductions to Leone and his work by Alfred S. Golding in A Comedy of Betrothal (Tsahoth B’dihutha D’Kiddushin) (Ottawa, 1988), 16ff; and Donald Beecher and Massimo Ciavolella (trans.), The Three Sisters (Ottawa, 1993). Many aspects of Leone’s own works and career, as well as the Mantuan culture in which he flourished, are in Ahuva Belkin (ed.), Leone de Sommi and the Performing Arts (Tel Aviv, 1997). The PhD dissertation of Wendy Sue Botuck, ‘Leone de Sommi: Jewish Participation in Italian Renaissance Theatre’ (UMI reprints, 1991), is also a pioneering and exceptionally valuable work of scholarship. There is as well a vivid account (the first in modern Jewish historiography in any detail) in the lovely and readable book by Cecil Roth, The Jews in the Renaissance (Philadelphia, 1959), 243–69.

3. As readers of Volume 1 of The Story of the Jews will know, I don’t believe that the entirety of Jewish cultural history should be explained as response to trauma, but the history of Jewish public performance begins with the realisation that the popularity of the Esther plays with Gentiles offered an opportunity to overturn stereotypes of Jews as victims or malignant conspirators. However, the manner in which Jews were represented in plays like The Jew of Malta and The Merchant of Venice, performed in theatres from which they were missing as actors, suggests this liberation from stereotype had some way to go. If only there were a contemporary performance history of The Merchant of Venice! See John Gross, Shylock: Four Hundred Years in the Life of a Legend (London, 1993).

4. David Kaufmann, ‘Leone de Sommi Portaleone (1527–92): Dramatist and Founder of a Synagogue at Mantua’, Jewish Quarterly Review, 10 (April 1898), 455–61.

5. Anna Levenstein, ‘Songs for the First Hebrew Play Tsahut bedihuta dekidushin, by Leone de’ Sommi (1527–1592)’, MA dissertation (Case Western Reserve University, January 2006), 85–141.

10. Don Harrán, ‘Madama Europe, Jewish Singer in Late Renaissance Mantua’, in Thomas J. Mathiesen and Benito V. Rivera, Festa Musicologica: Essays in Honour of George J. Buelow (Stuyvesant, 1995), 197–232.

11. There is a lively debate among scholars as to whether the primary thrust of Cum nimis absurdum was conversionary or punitive. It seems to me that it could have been both at the same time. Roberto Bonfil, Jewish Life in Renaissance Italy, trans. Anthony Oldcorn (Berkeley, 1994), 71, argues that the imposition of the ghetto in Rome was a ‘compromise’, preferable as in Venice to outright expulsion. This begs a big issue and seems to me excessively counter-intuitive. The Jewish population in Venice was much less deeply rooted in ancient places of residence when the ghetto there was established. In the case of Rome it did not preclude acts of expulsion elsewhere in the papal territories as the painful experience of 1569 demonstrated. On the foundation and character of the Roman ghetto, see Kenneth Stow, Theater of Acculturation: The Roman Ghetto in the 16th Century (Seattle, 2001).

12. Don Harrán, ‘The Levi Dynasty: Three Generations of Jewish Musicians in sixteenth-century Mantua’, in Giuseppe Veltri and Gianfranco Miletto (eds.), Rabbi Judah Moscato and the Jewish Intellectual World in Mantua in the 16th and 17th Centuries (Leiden, 2012), 167–99.

14. On Jewish musicians and composers, see Donald C. Sanders, Music at the Gonzaga Court in Mantua (Plymouth, 2012), 108–12; Shlomo Simonsohn, History of the Jews in the Duchy of Mantua (Jerusalem, 1977), 669–77; Roth, Jews in the Renaissance, 283ff.

15. On Colorni, see Rabbi Giuseppe Jare, Abraham Colorni: Ingegnere di Alfonso II d’Este (Ferrara, 1891); Cecil Roth, ‘The Amazing Abraham Colorni’, in Personalities and Events in Jewish History (Philadelphia, 1953) 296–304. Lately there has been a minor and very welcome Colorni industry of archival research and interpretation. See in particular Ariel Toaff, Il prestigiatore di Dio – Avventura e miracoli di un alchemista ebreo (Milan, 2010); and the important article by Daniel Jutte, ‘Trading Secrets: Jews and the Early Modern Quest for Clandestine Knowledge’, Isis, 4 (December 2012), 665–86.

Chapter 4

1. Cecil Roth, The Duke of Naxos of the House of Nasi (Philadelphia, 1948), 43.

2. Nevra Necipoglu, Architecture, Ceremonial and Power: The Topkapi Palace in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries (New York, 1991), 69ff.

3. Minna Rozen, A History of the Jewish Community in Istanbul: The Formative Years, 1453–1566 (Leiden, 2006), 208–9.

4. For the earlier history of such defamations in the Christian world, see Simon Schama, The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words, 1000 BCE–1492 CE (London, 2013), 307–10, 363–5.

6. Hans Dernschwam, Tagebuch einer Reise nach Konstantinople und Kleinasien (1554–1555), ed. F. Babinger (Munich, 1923), 290.

7. Aleida Paudice, Between Several Worlds: The Life and Writings of Elia Capsali: The Historical Works of a 16th-Century Rabbi (Munich, 2010), 99–127.

8. Joseph Hacker, ‘The Surgun System and Jewish Society in the Ottoman Empire during the Fifteenth to the Seventeenth Centuries’, in Aron Rodrigue (ed.), Ottoman and Turkish Jewry: Community and Leadership (Bloomington, 1992), 1–65.

10. For numbers and the difficulties of the two communities, Esther Benbassa and Aron Rodrigue, The Jews of the Balkans: The Judaeo-Spanish Community 15th to 20th Centuries (Oxford, 1995), 9–29; also Walter Weiker, Ottomans, Turks and the Jewish Polity: A History of the Jews of Turkey (New York, 1992), 40–1.

11. Sanford J. Shaw, The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic (New York, 1991), 79. See also Alfred Rubens, A History of Jewish Costume (New York, 1967), 40ff.

12. The synagogue existed – with an unusual tevah reached by galleries – until 1655 when a massive earthquake destroyed it; it was subsequently rebuilt as a near replica of the original.

15. Benjamin Arbel, Trading Nations: Jews, Venetians and the Early Modern Eastern Mediterranean (Leiden, 1995), 22ff. Arbel makes this multiplication of Castros quite clear, finally explaining why an ‘Abraham Castro’ is identified as having converted to Islam yet also identified as ‘the Jew’. One did; one didn’t. On Jewish tax farmers, see H. Gerber, ‘Jewish Tax Farmers in the Ottoman Empire’, Journal of Turkish Studies, 10 (1986), 143–54.

16. An effort has been made to argue that the Jerusalem walls were constructed as a precautionary measure against the possibility of a latter-day Crusade for the Holy Places. But it seems wildly unlikely that an administration as intelligently informed as Suleyman’s would have mistaken the usual Habsburg bluster for actual strategic intent.

17. Abraham David, To Come to the Land: Immigration and Settlement in Sixteenth-Century Eretz-Israel, trans. Dean Orden (Tuscaloosa, 1999).

18. Lawrence Fine, ‘New Approaches to the Study of Kabbalists in 16th-Century Safed’, in Frederick E. Greenspan (ed.), Jewish Mysticism and Kabbalah: New Insights and Scholarship (New York, 2011), 91–111.

22. The Diary of Master Thomas Dallam 1599–1600, Early Travels and Voyages in the Levant, Hakluyt Society (1893), 68–74; Lisa Jardine, A Point of View, BBC Radio 4, December 2007; Jerry Brotton, The Sultan and the Queen: The Untold Story of Elizabeth and Islam (London, 2016).

23. Susan Skilliter, ‘Three Letters from the Ottoman “Sultana” Safiye to Queen Elizabeth I’, in S. M. Stern (ed.), Documents from the Islamic Chanceries, First Series (Cambridge, MA, 1965), 184ff; on the kiras, see Leslie Peirce, The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire (New York, 1993), 223–6, and idem, ‘Gender and Sexual Propriety in Ottoman Royal Women’s Patronage’, in D. Fairchild Ruggles (ed.), Women, Patronage, and Self-Representation in Islamic Societies (Albany, 2000), 53–68.

Chapter 5

1. Leone Modena, The Autobiography of a Seventeenth-Century Venetian Rabbi: Leon Modena’s ‘Life of Judah’, trans. and ed. Mark R. Cohen, notes by Howard Tzvi Adelman and Benjamin Ravid (Princeton, 1988), 111.

9. Joanna Weinberg, ‘Preaching in the Venetian Ghetto: The Sermons of Leon Modena’, in David B. Ruderman (ed.), Preachers of the Italian Ghetto (Berkeley, 1992), 110ff.

10. On ghetto tourism, Eva Johanna Holmberg, Jews in the Early Modern English Imagination: A Scattered Nation (Farnham, 2011), 35–7.

11. Thomas Coryate, Coryat’s Crudities (London: Printed by W[illiam] S[tansby] for the author, 1611), 233.

12. Samuel Purchas, Purchas, His Pilgrimage (London, 1613), 165; Holmberg, 77.

13. Brian Pullan, The Jews of Europe and the Inquisition of Venice, 1550–1670 (Oxford, 1983), 165.

15. The Guercino, for example, was commissioned in 1627 in Ferrara by Cardinal Magalotti at the same time as he instituted a ghetto in that hirtherto freest and most tolerant of Italian city states. The Esther was supposed to celebrate his ‘clemency’. See Shelley Perlove, ‘Judaism and the Arts in Early Modern Europe: Jewish and Christian Encounters’, in Babette Bohn and James M. Saslow (eds.), A Companion to Renaissance and Baroque Art (Oxford, 2013), 53ff.

16. Sarra Copia Sulam, Jewish Poet and Intellectual in Seventeenth-Century Venice: The Works of Sarra Copia Sulam in Verse and Prose, trans. and ed. Don Harrán (Chicago, 2009), 201. See also Howard Tzvi Adelman, ‘Jewish Women and Family Life Inside and Outside the Ghetto’, in Robert C. Davis and Benjamin Ravid (eds.), The Jews of Early Modern Venice (Baltimore, 2001), 146ff.

17. On Sarra’s vocal and musical performances, Don Harrán, ‘Doubly Tainted and Doubly Talented: The Jewish Poetess Sara Copio (d. 1641) as Heroic Singer’, in Irene Alm, Alyson McLamore and Colleen Reardon (eds.), Musica Franca: Essays in Honor of Frank A. D’Accone (Stuyvesant, 1996), 367–410.

19. Carla Boccata, ‘Lettere di Ansaldo Cebà, genovese, a Sara Copio Sullam, poetessa del ghetto di Venezia’, in Rassegna mensile di Israel, 40 (1974).

34. Don Harrán, ‘“Dum Recordaremur Sion”: Music in the Life and Thought of the Venetian Rabbi Leon Modena (1571–1648)’, Association for Jewish Studies Review, 23:1 (1998), 17–61; idem, ‘Jewish Musical Culture: Leon Modena’, in Davis and Ravid (eds.), 211–30; on Rossi: idem, Salomone Rossi: Jewish Musician in Late Renaissance Mantua (Oxford, 1999); Joshua R. Jacobson, ‘Defending Salomone Rossi: The Transformation and Justification of Jewish Music in Renaissance Italy’, IRis (Music Faculty Publications, Northwestern University, October 2008), 85–92.

35. Modena, 24–5. See also Don Harrán, ‘Tradition and Innovation in Jewish Music of the Later Renaissance’, Journal of Musicology, 7:1 (Winter 1989), 107–30; Paul Nettl and Theodore Baker, ‘Some Early Jewish Musicians’, Musical Quarterly, 17:1 (1936), 40–6.

36. Miraculously, Obadiah Ha-Ger’s score of the hymn to Moses was found among the countless manuscripts preserved in the Cairo Geniza. Norman Golb, ‘The Autograph Memoirs of Obadiah the Proselyte of Oppido Lucano’, Convengno Internazionale di Studi, Giovanni-Obadiah da Oppido: proselito, viaggiatore e musicista dell’età normanna (online proceedings), Oppido Lucano, March 2004.

37. Israel Adler, La pratique musicale savante dans quelques communautés juives en Europe aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles, 2 vols (Paris, 1996); idem, ‘The Rise of Art Music in the Italian Ghetto: The Influence of Segregation on Jewish Musical Praxis’, in A. Altmann (ed.), Jewish Medieval and Renaissance Studies (Cambridge, MA, 1987), 321–64.

41. Published (in Hebrew) as The Songs of Solomon: Psalms, Songs and Hymns which have been set to music for 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 voices by Salomone Rossi, resident of the holy congregation of Mantua. In order to praise God and to sing His exalted name. Something new in the land (Venice, 1623).

42. On the experience and history of the prayer, Leon Wieseltier, Kaddish (New York, 1998).

43. Leone di Modena, Historia de Riti Hebraici (Paris, 1638); Simone Luzzatto, Discorso circa il stato de gl’Hebraici et in particolar di morandi nell’ in citta di venezia (Venice, 1638).

Chapter 6

1. The inscriptions were written on three stone stelae, dated 1489, 1512 and 1663. The last of these had an additional inscription added on the reverse. The later the inscription the more likely it was to claim the most ancient myth of origins (in this case all the way back to the Chou dynasty). Tiberiu Weisz, The Kaifeng Stone Inscriptions: The Legacy of the Jewish Community of Ancient China (Lincoln, Nebraska, 2006). See also: Chen Yuan, ‘A Study of the Israelite Religion in Kaifeng’, in Sidney Shapiro (ed.), Jews in Old China: Studies by Chinese Scholars (New York, 2001), 15–45; Michael Pollak, ‘The Revelation of a Jewish Presence in Seventeenth Century China: Its Impact on Western Messianic Thought’, in Jonathan Goldstein (ed.), The Jews of China, Vol. 1: Historical and Comparative Perspectives (Armonk, 1999), 50–70; Irene Eder, ‘Kaifeng Jews Revisited: Sinification as Affirmation of Identity’, Monumenta Serica Institute, 41 (1993), 231–47; Donald Leslie, The Survival of the Chinese Jews: The Jewish Community of Kaifeng (Leiden, 1972).

2. The presence of Kaifeng Jewish artefacts in Canada is largely due to the presence of Anglican-Canadian missionaries in the region in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Bishop William White, who lived in Kaifeng, published a pioneering three-volume survey, Chinese Jews (Toronto, 1942).

4. Xu Xin, The Jews of Kaifeng, China: History, Culture, Religion (Jersey City, 2004), 84.

5. Fook Kong-wong and Dalia Yasharpour, The Haggadah of the Kaifeng Jews of China (Leiden, 2011).

6. Michael Pollak, Mandarins, Jews and Missionaries: The Jewish Experience in the Chinese Empire (New York, 1983), 293.

12. S. D. Goitein and Mordechai A. Freidman (eds.), India Traders of the Middle Ages: Documents from the Cairo Geniza (Leiden, 2007).

13. Peter Mark and José da Silva Horta, The Forgotten Diaspora: Jewish Communities in West Africa and the Making of the Atlantic World (Cambridge, 2011).

14. Peter Mark and José da Silva Horta, ‘Catholics, Jews and Muslims in Early Seventeenth Century Guinea’, in Richard L. Kagan and Philip D. Morgan (eds.), Atlantic Diasporas: Jews, Conversos and Crypto-Jews in the Age of Mercantilism 1500–1800 (Baltimore, 2009), 177.

17. Jonathan Schorsch, ‘Mosseh Pereyra de Paiva: An Amsterdam Portuguese Jewish Merchant Abroad in the Seventeenth Century’, in Yosef Kaplan (ed.), The Dutch Intersection: The Jews and the Netherlands in Modern History (Leiden, 2008), 63–85.

Chapter 7

1. Letters of Queen Henrietta Maria including her private correspondence, ed. Mary Anne Everett Green (London, 1857), 63–5.

2. David Humphrey, ‘To Sell England’s Jewels: Queen Henrietta Maria’s Visits to the Continent, 1642 and 1644’, online, E-rea, Revue électronique d’études sur le monde anglophone (2014); idem, ‘A Chronicle of the “Three Brothers” Jewel between 1623 and c. 1644’, Jewellery Studies, 12 (2012), 85–92.

3. Pierre l’Ancre, L’incrédulité et mescréance du sortilège plainement convaincue (Paris, 1622); Harry Melnick, From Polemics to Apologetics: Jewish–Christian Rapprochement in 17th-Century Amsterdam (Assen, 1981), 24–5.

5. Marsha Keith Schuchard, Restoring the Temple of Vision: Cabalistic Freemasonry and Stuart Culture (Leiden, 2002).

6. This is the great theme of Miriam Bodian’s fine work, Hebrews of the Portuguese Nation: Conversos and Community in Early Modern Amsterdam (Bloomington, 1997). See also Daniel M. Swetchinsky, Reluctant Cosmopolitans: The Portuguese Jews of Seventeenth-Century Amsterdam (Oxford, 2000). And on the ambiguous attitudes of the Sephardim to further waves of incoming impoverished Jews, Tirtsah Levie Bernfeld, Poverty and Welfare among the Portuguese Jews in Early Modern Amsterdam (Oxford, 2012).

7. Menasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel, trans. Moses Wall (1650), ed. Henry Mechoulan and Gerard Nahon (Liverpool, 1987), 25.

8. Noah H. Rosenbloom, ‘Discreet Polemics in Menasseh ben Israel’s Conciliador’, Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research, 58 (1992), 143–91. On Menasseh, Cecil Roth, A Life of Menasseh ben Israel (New York, 1945); and the many illuminating essays in Yosef Kaplan, Henry Mechoulan and Richard H. Popkin (eds.), Menasseh ben Israel and his World (Leiden, 1989), especially Mechoulan, ‘Menasseh ben Israel and the World of the Non-Jew’, 83–97.

9. For some general but powerful reflections on this issue, Yosef Kaplan, ‘Gente Política: The Portuguese Jews of Amsterdam vis-à-vis Dutch Society’, in Chaya Brasz and Yosef Kaplan (eds.), Dutch Jews as Perceived by Themselves and Others (Leiden, 2001), 21–40.

10. Adri Offenberg, ‘Jacob Jehudah Leon (1602–1675) and his Model of the Temple’, in J. van den Berg and Ernestine G. E. van der Wall (eds.), Jewish–Christian Relations in the Seventeenth Century: Studies and Documents (Dordrecht, 1988), 95–115; idem, ‘Dirk van Santen and the Keur Bible: New Insights into Jacob Judah (Arye) Templo’s Model Temple’, Studia Rosenthaliana, 34 (2004), 401–22; Gary Schwartz, ‘The Temple Mount in the Lowlands’, in Yosef Kaplan (ed.), Dutch Intersection: The Jews and the Netherlands in Modern History (Leiden, 2008), 111–21.

11. Richard I. Cohen, Jewish Icons: Art and Society in Modern Europe (Berkeley, 1998), 31–2; Michael Zell, Reframing Rembrandt (Berkeley, 2002), 20. Zell reminds us that, in the light of court archives recording Jacob being summoned for violent acts inflicted on his wife, his surname may have been a misnomer.

12. Johannes Buxtorf, Synagoga Judaica (Juden-Schul) (Basel, 1603), trans. and ed. Alain Corre, online.

14. Helene Rosenau, Vision of the Temple: The Image of the Temple in Judaism and Christianity (London, 1979); Tessa Morrison, ‘Shifting Dimensions: The Architectural Model in History’, in Mark Bury, Michael Ostwald, Peter Downton and Andrea Mina (eds.), Homo Faber: Modelling Architecture (Melbourne, 2007), 142–57.

19. For more details of these Dutch narratives and the Hebraic–Israelite analogy, Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches: An Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age (London, 1987), 82ff; for the Sephardi martyrologies, Bodian, 80–1.

20. Jonathan I. Israel, ‘The Intellectual Debate about Toleration in the Dutch Republic’, in C. Berkvens-Stevelinck, Jonathan I. Israel and J. H. M. Posthumus Meyjes (eds.), The Emergence of Tolerance in the Dutch Republic (Leiden, 1997), 3–36; Miriam Bodian, ‘The Portuguese of Amsterdam and the Status of Christians’, in Elisheva Carlebach and Jacob J. Schachter (eds.), New Perspectives on Jewish–Christian Relations: In Honor of David Berger (Leiden, 2012), 340–2.

21. Henrietta de Bruyn Kops, A Spirited Exchange: The Wine and Brandy Trade Between France and the Dutch Republic in the Atlantic Framework, 1600–1650 (Leiden, 2007), 254.

22. Jessica Vance Roitman, The Same but Different? Inter-cultural Trade and the Sephardim 1595–1640 (Leiden, 2011), 252ff. Roitman argues, to my mind persuasively, that Sephardi commercial networks were less endogenous and exclusive than has sometimes been argued, and as often depended on partnerships that went well beyond the Sephardi community.

23. Menasseh ben Israel, De Problema Creatione XXX (Thirty Problems of Creation) (Amsterdam, 1635); prefatory poems by Caspar Barlaeus; F. Blok, ‘Caspar Barlaeus en de Joden: De Geschiedenis van een epigram’, Nederlands archief voor kerkgeschiedenis, 58: 1 (1977), 85–108.

25. For Jews on the Bourse, Jonathan Israel, ‘The Amsterdam Stock Exchange and the English Revolution of 1688’, Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis, ciii (1990), 412–40.

26. See Simon Schama, The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words, 1000 BCE–1492 CE (London, 2013).

27. Eric Nelson, The Hebrew Republic: Jewish Sources and the Transformation of European Political Thought (Cambridge, MA, 2010), 18–19.

29. Simon Schama Rembrandt’s Eyes (London, 1999), 622–4; and idem, The Embarrassment of Riches, 115–21.

30. On Rembrandt’s treatment of Jewish subjects, Steven Nadler, Rembrandt’s Jews (Chicago, 2003), 42–103.

32. D’Andrade brought a notary in to witness his complaint. Rembrandt proposed submitting the issue of ‘likeness’ to a panel appointed by the artists’ Guild of St Luke but only after the merchant had paid the balance owing in full. The upshot of the dispute is not, alas, known.

33. The account of the suicide is given by Philip van Limborch as an introduction to da Costa’s autobiography, which came into his hands and which he published in 1687 as Exemplar humanae vitae, appended to his account of theological discussions between himself and a ‘learned Jew’, Isaac Orobio de Castro, De Veritate Religionis Christianae Amica Collatio cum Erudito Judaeo. The autobiography together with the introduction was translated into English in 1740 as The Remarkable Life of Uriel da Costa. An almost contemporary verification was supplied by the Lutheran cleric Johann Muller, who also owned a copy of the autobiography and described the circumstances of the suicide in his Judaismus oder Judenthum just four years later (Hamburg, 1644). The most authoritative summary of da Costa’s dramatic life is the introduction to H. P. Salomon and I. S. D. Sassoon (eds.), Uriel da Costa’s Examination of Pharisaic Tradition (Leiden, 1993), 1–24.

34. Talya Fishman, Shaking the Pillars of Exile: ‘Voice of a Fool’, an Early Modern Jewish Critique of Rabbinic Culture (Stanford, 1997). See also Ellis Rivkin, Leon da Modena and the Kol Sakhal (Cincinnati, 1952).

35. We owe our knowledge of the text to H. P. Salomon’s discovery of one of the only two surviving copies in the Royal Library in Copenhagen. H. P. Salomon, ‘A Copy of Uriel da Costa’s Exame das tradicoes phariseas’, Studia Rosenthaliana, XXIV (1990), 153–68.

36. Steven Nadler, Spinoza: A Life (Cambridge, 1999); Don Garrett (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Spinoza (Cambridge, 1996); Geneviève Brykman, La Judéité de Spinoza (Paris, 1972); see also Rebecca Newberger Goldstein, Betraying Spinoza: The Renegade Jew who Gave us Modernity (New York, 2009); Susan James, Spinoza on Philosophy, Religion and Politics (Oxford, 2012); Yirimiyahu Yovel, Spinoza and Other Heretics: The Marranos of Reason (Princeton, 1989).

37. By some accounts Morteira is said to have pleaded with Spinoza to abandon his ‘terrible heresies’, and it was only after failing that he accepted the herem would be inevitable. Jonathan I. Israel, ‘Philosophy, Commerce and Synagogue – Spinoza’s Expulsion from the Amsterdam Portuguese Jewish Community in 1656’, in Jonathan I. Israel and Reinier Salverda (eds.), Dutch Jewry: Its History and Secular Culture, 1500–2000 (Leiden, 2002), argues, plausibly, that by this stage Spinoza, through acts of calculated temerity, was virtually challenging the community to bring on his excommunication.

38. Odette Vlessing, ‘The Excommunication of Baruch Spinoza and the Birth of a Philosopher’, in Israel and Salverda (eds.), 141–72, argues that Spinoza’s financial manipulations were more likely than any kind of philosophical audacity to have brought on the herem, but the text of the excommunication refers to ‘atrocious heresies’, so however poorly received, his social tactics hardly seem the breaking point.

41. Y. Kaplan, ‘The Social Function of the Herem in the Portuguese Jewish Community of Amsterdam in the 17th century’, in J. Michman and T. Levie (eds.), Dutch Jewish History: Proceedings of the Second Symposium on the History of the Jews in the Netherlands, November 28–December 3 (Tel Aviv–Jerusalem, 1982), 111–55.

42. I. S. Revah, Spinoza et Juan de Prado (Paris, 1959); idem, ‘Aux Origines de la Rupture Spinozienne’, Revue des Études Juives, 123 (July–December 1964), 359–431.

43. On the Tractatus, Steven Nadler, A Book Forged in Hell: Spinoza’s Scandalous Treatise and the Birth of the Secular Age (Princeton, 2011); and the essays in Yitzhak Y. Melamed and Michael A. Rosenthal (eds.), Spinoza’s Theological-Political Treatise: A Critical Guide (Cambridge, 2010).

44. On Spinoza’s complicated relationship with the Maimonidean tradition, David Biale, Not in the Heavens: The Tradition of Jewish Secular Thought (Princeton, 2011), 16–32.

45. ‘The Relation of Antony Montezinos’, trans. Moses Wall, in Menasseh ben Israel, The Hope of Israel, reprinted in Lucien Wolf, Menasseh ben Israel’s Mission to Oliver Cromwell (London, 1901: reprinted Cambridge, 2012). See also Richard H. Popkin, ‘The Rise and Fall of the Jewish Indian Theory’, in Kaplan et al. (eds.), Menasseh ben Israel and his World, 63–8; Benjamin Schmidt, ‘The Hope of the Netherlands: Menasseh ben Israel and the Dutch Idea of America’, in Paolo Bernardini and Norman Fiering (eds.), The Jews and the Expansion of Europe to the West, 1450–1800 (New York, 2001), 86–106; Ronnie Perelis, ‘“These Indians Are Jews!”: Lost Tribes, Crypto-Jews and Jewish Self-Fashioning in Antonio de Montezinos’ Relación of 1644’, in Kagan and Morgan (eds.), Atlantic Diasporas, 195–211.

47. Andre Neher, Jewish Thought and the Scientific Revolution of the 16th Century: David Gans (Oxford, 1985), Vol. II, 3–4.

48. Diego de Landa, Relacion des las Cosas de Yucatan, online (n.p.). Landa’s book on the Maya was first published by Charles Etienne de Boubourg, Relation des choses de Yucatande Diego de Landa (Paris, 1864); see also William Gates (trans. and ed.), Yucatan Before and After the Conquest (New York, 1937; reprinted 1978).

49. The detail of their dress comes from a letter written by Montezinos to an Italian correspondent called Elias Péreire who may or may not have been of the same family as the wealthy Pereyra of Amsterdam. Jonathan Schorsch has published the copy in the Indiana University Lilly Library, with commentary in Swimming the Christian Atlantic: Judeoconversos, Afroiberians and Amerindians in the Seventeenth Century (Leiden, 2009), 505–13. Schorsch rightly says the additional details described in the letter make the Montezinos story if anything even more fantastic. See also Perelis.

51. On the link between excitement about ‘Jews in America’ and readmission to England, Albert Hyamson, ‘Lost Tribes and the Influence of the Search for Them on the Return of the Jews to England’, Jewish Quarterly Review, 15:4 (July 1903), 640–76.

52. Grant Underwood, ‘The Hope of Israel in Early Modern Ethnography and Eschatology’, in Shalom Goldman (ed.), Hebrew and the Bible in America: The First Two Centuries (Waltham, MA, 1993).

53. Ismar Schorsch, ‘From Messianism to Realpolitik’, Proceedings of the American Academy of Jewish Research, 45 (1978), argues strongly that the Montezinos story had little or nothing to do with Menasseh’s motives in seeking readmission, although The Hope of Israel and the Vindiciae Judaeorum emphasise the global extent of the dispersion precondition of messianism.

54. Menasseh ben Israel, Vindiciae Judaeorum (n.p., 1656), in Wolf, Menasseh ben Israel’s Mission to Oliver Cromwell, 105–47.

56. On Moses Wall (whose father was also called Moses), Noel Malcolm, ‘Moses Wall, Millenarian, Tolerationist and Friend of Milton’, The Seventeenth Century, 27: 1 (Spring 2012), 25–53.

57. David S. Katz, ‘Menasseh ben Israel’s Christian Connection: Henry Jessey and the Jews’, in Kaplan et al. (eds.), Menasseh ben Israel and His World, 116–38; also Katz, Philo-Semitism and the Readmission of the Jews to England, 1603–1655 (Oxford, 1982); on the mission to England see also Cecil Roth, A Life of Menasseh ben Israel (New York, 1945).

59. Edgar Samuel, ‘Oliver Cromwell and the Readmission of the Jews to England in 1656’, in idem, At the End of the Earth: Essays on the History of Jews in England and Portugal (London, 2004), 180.

60. Susanna Akerman, ‘Queen Christina and Messianic Thought’, in David S. Katz and Jonathan I. Israel (eds.), Sceptics, Millenarians and Jews (Leiden, 1990), 142–60.

61. For Williams’s radical tolerationism: Edmund Morgan, Roger Williams: The Church and the State (New York, 2007); John Barry, Roger Williams and the Creation of the American Soul (New York, 2012); Simon Schama, The American Future: A History (London, 2008), 152–71.

63. Yosef Kaplan, ‘Political Concepts in the World of the Portuguese Jews of Amsterdam during the Seventeenth Century: The Problem of Exclusion and the Boundaries of Self-Identity’, in Kaplan et al. (eds.), Menasseh ben Israel and his World, 50–1.

64. Wolf, 83. Don Patinkin, ‘Mercantilism and the Readmission of the Jews to England’, Jewish Social Studies, 8:3 (July 1946), 161–78.

Chapter 8

1. A New Letter from Aberdeen in Scotland sent to a Person of Quality wherein is a more full account of the Proceedings of the Jews than has hitherto been published (London, 1665), quoted in Gershom Scholem, Sabbatai Zevi: The Mystical Messiah 1626–1676 (Princeton, 1973), 348–9.

4. Ibid., especially 15–66. ‘Lurianic’ Kabbalism does indeed have a strong purchase on the diaspora and the Jewish yeshivot of Palestine and Egypt in this period, but there was also fierce resistance to it in the Rabbinate, both Sephardi and Ashkenazi, and the masses of Jews who became Shebbatians were certainly not all adepts of its rarefied cosmology and metaphysics. It seems to me that it was precisely when, in its Hasidic incarnation in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, it found a simplified vernacular that a dilute Kabbalism morphed into a genuinely popular mass movement.

8. Simon Schama, The Story of the Jews: Finding the Words, 1000 BCE–1492 CE (London, 2013), 267–8, 348.

9. Robert Alter, ‘Shabbetai Zevi and the Jewish Imagination’, Commentary, 43:6 (June 1967), 66–71.

14. David J. Halperin, Sabbatai Zevi: Testimonies to a Fallen Messiah (Oxford, 2012). This is the best source book for contemporary accounts, and letters both pro and con.

15. The Memoirs of Gluckel of Hameln, trans. Marvin Lowenthal (New York, 1932), 46–7.

16. On the de Hooghe circumcision print, and the representation and demand for prints of Jewish life, Steven Nadler, Rembrandt’s Jews (Chicago, 2003), 58ff.

17. Sergey R. Kravtsov, ‘Juan Bautista Villalpando and Sacred Architecture in the 17th Century’, Journal of Architectural Historians, 62: 3 (September 2005), 327.

18. Yosef Kaplan, ‘For Whom did Emannuel de Witte Paint his Three Pictures of the Sephardi Synagogue in Amsterdam?’, Studia Rosenthaliana, 32 (1998), 133–54.

19. Gary Schwartz, ‘The Temple Mount in the Lowlands’, in Yosef Kaplan (ed.), Dutch Intersection: The Jews and the Netherlands in Modern History (Leiden, 2008), 112ff, points out that architectural elements of the Temple were also incorporated into Dutch church architecture in Haarlem by the most celebrated of contemporary architects, Jacob van Campen.

20. Adri Offenberg, ‘Jacob Jehudah Leon (1602–1675) and his Model of the Temple’, in J. van den Berg and Ernestine G. E. van der Wall (eds.), Jewish–Christian Relations in the Seventeenth Century: Studies and Documents (Dordrecht, 1988), 107.

22. Tessa Morrison, Isaac Newton’s Temple of Solomon and his Reconstruction of Sacred Architecture (Basel, 2011).

23. H. W. Robinson and W. Adams (eds.), The Diaries of Robert Hooke 1675–1680 (London, 1935), 179.

Chapter 9

1. Amos Elon, The Pity of It All: A Portrait of the German-Jewish Epoch (London, 2004), 29.

2. Alexander Putik, ‘Prague Jews and Judah Hasid: A Study on the Social, Political and Religious History of the Late Seventeenth and Early Eighteenth Centuries’, Judice Bohemiae, 38 (2003), 72–105; 39 (2004), 53–92; Samuel Krauss, ‘Die Palastinasiedlung der polnischen Hasidim und die Wiener Kereise im Jahre 1700’, Abhandlung zur Erinnerung an Hirsch Perez Chajes (Vienna, 1933; reprinted. New York, 1980), 51–94.

3. Selma Stern, The Court Jew: A Contribution to the History of the Period of Absolutism in Europe (Philadelphia, 1950); Michael A. Meyer (ed.), German Jewish History in Modern Times, Vol. 1, Tradition and Enlightenment 1600–1780 (New York, 1996), 104–26; Vivian B. Mann and Richard I. Cohen (eds.), From Court Jews to the Rothschilds: Art, Patronage and Power 1600–1800 (New York, 1997).

4. Michael Graetz, ‘Court Jews in Economics and Politics’, in Mann and Cohen (eds.), 27–44.

6. In fact the original Jewish Historical Museum of Vienna opened its doors in 1898 while the city had an anti-Semitic mayor and was the first such public museum of its kind anywhere in the world. On fine arts and architectural patronage, Richard I. Cohen and Vivian B. Mann, ‘Melding Worlds: Court Jews and the Arts of the Baroque’, in From Court Jews to the Rothschilds, 97–131.

7. Rachel Wischnitzer, The Architecture of the European Synagogue (Philadelphia, 1964), 155; Carol Krinsky, Synagogues of Europe: Architecture, History, Meaning (Cambridge, MA, 1985); Saskia Coenen Snyder, ‘Acculturation, Particularism and the Modern City: Synagogue Building and Jewish Identity in Modern Europe’, PhD dissertation (University of Michigan, 2008), 56–8.

8. Richard I. Cohen, Jewish Icons: Art and Society in Modern Europe (Berkeley, 1998).

9. ‘Ritual Art’, in Cecil Roth and Bezalel Narkiss, Jewish Art: An Illustrated History (Jerusalem, 1971).

10. Vivian Mann, ‘Jewish Display Silver after the Age of Exploration’, Early Modern Workshop: Jewish History Resources, Vol. 4, Jewish Consumption and Material Culture in the Early Modern Period (2007), online.

12. Aubrey Newman, ‘The Expulsion of the Jews of Prague in 1745 and British Foreign Policy’, Transactions and Miscellania [Jewish Historical Society of England], 22 (1968–9), 30–41; William Abeles Iggers (ed.), The Jews of Bohemia and Moravia: A Historical Reader, trans. Wilma Abeles Iggers, Kaca Polackova-Henley and Kathrine Talbot (Detroit, 1992), 31–8.

13. Notes on the Diplomatic History of the Jewish Question, Lucien Wolf (ed.), Jewish Historical Society of England (London, 1919), 9.

15. For the most recent commentary, Moshe Halbertal, Maimonides: Life and Thought (New York, 2013), 277–368.

16. Solomon Maimon, An Autobiography, trans. J. Clark Murray (Chicago, 2001), 195.

18. Menahem Schmelzer, ‘Hebrew Printing and Publishing in Germany 1650–1750: On Jewish Book Culture and the Emergence of Modern Jewry’, Leo Baeck Institute Year Book, 33 (1988).

19. Steven N. Lowenstein, ‘The Jewish Upper Crust and Berlin in the Enlightenment: The Family of Daniel Itzig’, in Frances Malino and David Sorkin, Profiles in Diversity: Jews in a Changing Europe, 1750–1870 (Detroit, 1998), 182–205.

20. Steven M. Lowenstein, The Berlin Jewish Community: Enlightenment, Family and Crisis 1770–1830 (Oxford, 1994). The classic survey of the subject is Jacob Katz, Out of the Ghetto: The Social Background of Jewish Emancipation, 1770-–1820 (Cambridge, MA, 1973), 40–78.

21. David Ruderman, Jewish Thought and Scientific Discovery in Early Modern Europe (New Haven, 1995).

22. There were just twenty-five Jews studying in five German universities in the first half of the eighteenth century. Shmuel Feiner, The Jewish Enlightenment (Philadelphia, 2004), 3. On medical study and the Gumpertz family, G. Freudenthal, ‘New Light on the Physician Aaron Salomon Gumpertz: Medicine, Science and Early Haskalah in Berlin’, Zutot: Perspectives on Jewish Culture, 3 (2003), 66–77.

24. Noah Efron, Judaism and Science: An Historical Introduction (Westport, 2007), 150; the portrait is reproduced in Shmuel Feiner and Natalie Naimark-Goldberg, Cultural Revolution in Berlin: Jews in the Age of the Enlightenment (Oxford, 2011), 14. On Raphael Levi’s attack on rabbinical anti-Copernicanism, Jeremy Brown, New Heavens and New Earth: The Jewish Reception of Copernican Thought (New York, 2013), 146–67.

28. Jacob Emden, Megilat Sefer: The Autobiography of Rabbi Jacob Emden (1697–1776), trans. S. B. Leperer and M. H. Wise (Baltimore, 2011), 177. On Emden and the temptations of flesh, Shmuel Feiner, The Origins of Jewish Secularization in Eighteenth-Century Europe, trans. Chaya Naor (Philadelphia, 2010), 51–4.

30. David Sorkin, Berlin Haskalah and German Religious Thought: Orphans of Knowledge (London, 2000); idem, The Religious Enlightenment: Protestants, Jews and Catholics from London to Vienna (Princeton, 2009).

31. Hugh Barr Nisbet, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing: His Life, Works and Thought (Oxford, 2013), 157.

32. Alexander Altmann, Moses Mendelssohn: A Biographical Study (Oxford, 1973), 41. Despite recent criticism, this exhaustive study of the man and his work still holds up extraordinarily well. The more recent literature on Mendelssohn is considerable. See, for example, Allan Arkush, Moses Mendelssohn and the European Enlightenment (Albany, 1994); David Sorkin, Moses Mendelssohn and the Religious Enlightenment (Berkeley, 1996); Dominique Bourel, Moses Mendelssohn: La naissance du judaïsme moderne (Paris, 2004); Michah Gottlieb, Faith and Freedom: Moses Mendelssohn’s Theological-Political Thought (Oxford, 2011).

33. Gad Freudenthal, ‘New Light on the Physician Aaron Solomon Gumpertz: Medicine, Science and the Early Haskalah in Berlin’, Zutot: Perspectives on Jewish Culture, 3 (2003), 66–77; idem, ‘Aaron Solomon Gumpertz, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and the First Call for the Improvement of Civil Rights of Jews in Germany (1753)’, Association of Jewish Studies Review, 29:2 (2005), 299–353.

34. Robert Liberles, Jews Welcome Coffee: Tradition and Innovation in Early Modern Germany (Waltham, MA, 2012).

35. On Mendelssohn’s ‘re-Jewing’ of Spinoza, Adam Sutcliffe, ‘Quarreling over Spinoza: Moses Mendelssohn and the Fashioning of Jewish Philosophical Heroism’, in Ross Brann and Adam Sutcliffe (eds.), Renewing the Past, Reconfiguring Jewish Culture: From al-Andalus to the Haskalah (Philadelphia, 2004).