Table of Contents
- LEVIATHAN
- By Thomas Hobbes
- THE INTRODUCTION
- PART 1 OF MAN
- CHAPTER I. OF SENSE
- CHAPTER II. OF IMAGINATION
- Memory
- Dreams
- Apparitions Or Visions
- Understanding
- CHAPTER III. OF THE CONSEQUENCE OR TRAYNE OF IMAGINATIONS
- Trayne Of Thoughts Unguided
- Trayne Of Thoughts Regulated
- Remembrance
- Prudence
- Signes
- Conjecture Of The Time Past
- CHAPTER IV. OF SPEECH
- Originall Of Speech
- The Use Of Speech
- Abuses Of Speech
- Names Proper & Common Universall
- Subject To Names
- Use Of Names Positive
- Negative Names With Their Uses
- Words Insignificant
- Understanding
- Inconstant Names
- CHAPTER V. OF REASON, AND SCIENCE.
- Reason What It Is
- Reason Defined
- Right Reason Where
- The Use Of Reason
- Of Error And Absurdity
- Causes Of Absurditie
- Science
- Prudence & Sapience, With Their Difference
- Signes Of Science
- CHAPTER VI. OF THE INTERIOUR BEGINNINGS OF VOLUNTARY MOTIONS
- Motion Vitall And Animal
- Endeavour; Appetite; Desire; Hunger; Thirst; Aversion
- Contempt
- Good Evill
- Pulchrum Turpe; Delightfull Profitable; Unpleasant Unprofitable
- Delight Displeasure
- Pleasure Offence
- Pleasures Of Sense; Pleasures Of The Mind; Joy Paine Griefe
- The Will
- Formes Of Speech, In Passion
- Good And Evill Apparent
- Felicity
- Praise Magnification
- CHAPTER VII. OF THE ENDS OR RESOLUTIONS OF DISCOURSE
- Judgement, or Sentence Final; Doubt
- Science Opinion Conscience
- Beliefe Faith
- CHAPTER VIII. OF THE VERTUES COMMONLY CALLED INTELLECTUAL;
- AND THEIR CONTRARY DEFECTS
- Intellectuall Vertue Defined
- Wit, Naturall, Or Acquired
- Good Wit, Or Fancy; Good Judgement; Discretion
- Prudence
- Craft
- Acquired Wit
- Giddinesse Madnesse
- Rage
- Melancholy
- Insignificant Speech
- CHAPTER IX. OF THE SEVERALL SUBJECTS OF KNOWLEDGE
- CHAPTER X. OF POWER, WORTH, DIGNITY, HONOUR AND WORTHINESS
- Power
- Worth
- Dignity
- To Honour and Dishonour
- Titles of Honour
- Worthinesse Fitnesse
- CHAPTER XI. OF THE DIFFERENCE OF MANNERS
- What Is Here Meant By Manners
- A Restlesse Desire Of Power, In All Men
- Love Of Contention From Competition
- Civil Obedience From Love Of Ease
- From Feare Of Death Or Wounds
- And From Love Of Arts
- Love Of Vertue, From Love Of Praise
- Hate, From Difficulty Of Requiting Great Benefits
- And From Conscience Of Deserving To Be Hated
- Promptnesse To Hurt, From Fear
- And From Distrust Of Their Own Wit
- Vain Undertaking From Vain-glory
- Ambition, From Opinion Of Sufficiency
- Irresolution, From Too Great Valuing Of Small Matters
- And From The Ignorance Of Naturall Causes
- And From Want Of Understanding
- Credulity From Ignorance Of Nature
- Curiosity To Know, From Care Of Future Time
- Naturall Religion, From The Same
- CHAPTER XII. OF RELIGION
- Religion, In Man Onely
- First, From His Desire Of Knowing Causes
- From The Consideration Of The Beginning Of Things
- From His Observation Of The Sequell Of Things
- Which Makes Them Fear The Power Of Invisible Things
- And Suppose Them Incorporeall
- But Know Not The Way How They Effect Anything
- But Honour Them As They Honour Men
- And Attribute To Them All Extraordinary Events
- Foure Things, Naturall Seeds Of Religion
- Made Different By Culture
- The Absurd Opinion Of Gentilisme
- The Causes Of Change In Religion
- Injoyning Beleefe Of Impossibilities
- Doing Contrary To The Religion They Establish
- Want Of The Testimony Of Miracles
- CHAPTER XIII. OF THE NATURALL CONDITION OF MANKIND,
- AS CONCERNING THEIR FELICITY, AND MISERY
- From Equality Proceeds Diffidence
- From Diffidence Warre
- Out Of Civil States,
- The Incommodites Of Such A War
- In Such A Warre, Nothing Is Unjust
- The Passions That Incline Men To Peace
- CHAPTER XIV. OF THE FIRST AND SECOND NATURALL LAWES, AND OF CONTRACTS
- Right Of Nature What
- Liberty What
- A Law Of Nature What
- Naturally Every Man Has Right To Everything
- The Fundamental Law Of Nature
- The Second Law Of Nature
- What it is to lay down a Right
- Renouncing (or) Transferring Right What; Obligation Duty Justice
- Not All Rights Are Alienable
- Contract What
- The mutuall transferring of Right, is that which men call CONTRACT.
- Covenant What
- Free-gift
- Signes Of Contract Expresse
- Signes Of Contract By Inference
- Free Gift Passeth By Words Of The Present Or Past
- Merit What
- Covenants Of Mutuall Trust, When Invalid
- Right To The End, Containeth Right To The Means
- No Covenant With Beasts
- Nor With God Without Speciall Revelation
- No Covenant, But Of Possible And Future
- Covenants How Made Voyd
- Covenants Extorted By Feare Are Valide
- The Former Covenant To One, Makes Voyd The Later To Another
- A Mans Covenant Not To Defend Himselfe, Is Voyd
- No Man Obliged To Accuse Himselfe
- The End Of An Oath; The Forme Of As Oath
- No Oath, But By God
- An Oath Addes Nothing To The Obligation
- CHAPTER XV. OF OTHER LAWES OF NATURE
- The Third Law Of Nature, Justice
- Justice And Injustice What
- Justice Not Contrary To Reason
- Covenants Not Discharged By The Vice Of The Person To Whom Made
- Justice Of Men, And Justice Of Actions What
- Justice Of Manners, And Justice Of Actions
- Nothing Done To A Man, By His Own Consent Can Be Injury
- Justice Commutative, And Distributive
- The Fourth Law Of Nature, Gratitude
- The Fifth, Mutuall accommodation, or Compleasance
- The Sixth, Facility To Pardon
- The Seventh, That In Revenges, Men Respect Onely The Future Good
- The Eighth, Against Contumely
- The Ninth, Against Pride
- The Tenth Against Arrogance
- The Eleventh Equity
- The Twelfth, Equall Use Of Things Common
- The Thirteenth, Of Lot
- The Fourteenth, Of Primogeniture, And First Seising
- The Fifteenth, Of Mediators
- The Sixteenth, Of Submission To Arbitrement
- The Seventeenth, No Man Is His Own Judge
- The Eighteenth, No Man To Be Judge, That Has In Him Cause Of Partiality
- The Nineteenth, Of Witnesse
- A Rule, By Which The Laws Of Nature May Easily Be Examined
- The Lawes Of Nature Oblige In Conscience Alwayes,
- The Laws Of Nature Are Eternal;
- And Yet Easie
- The Science Of These Lawes, Is The True Morall Philosophy
- CHAPTER XVI. OF PERSONS, AUTHORS, AND THINGS PERSONATED
- Person Naturall, And Artificiall
- The Word Person, Whence
- Actor, Author; Authority
- Covenants By Authority, Bind The Author
- But Not The Actor
- The Authority Is To Be Shewne
- Things Personated, Inanimate
- Irrational
- False Gods
- The True God
- A Multitude Of Men, How One Person
- Every One Is Author
- An Actor May Be Many Men Made One By Plurality Of Voyces
- Representatives, When The Number Is Even, Unprofitable
- Negative Voyce
- PART II. OF COMMON-WEALTH
- CHAPTER XVII. OF THE CAUSES, GENERATION, AND DEFINITION OF A
- The End Of Common-wealth, Particular Security
- Which Is Not To Be Had From The Law Of Nature:
- Nor From The Conjunction Of A Few Men Or Familyes
- Nor From A Great Multitude, Unlesse Directed By One Judgement
- And That Continually
- Why Certain Creatures Without Reason, Or Speech,
- Do Neverthelesse Live In Society, Without Any Coercive Power
- The Generation Of A Common-wealth
- The Definition Of A Common-wealth
- Soveraigne, And Subject, What
- CHAPTER XVIII. OF THE RIGHTS OF SOVERAIGNES BY INSTITUTION
- The Act Of Instituting A Common-wealth, What
- The Consequences To Such Institution, Are
- I. The Subjects Cannot Change The Forme Of Government
- From this Institution of a Common-wealth are derived all the Rights, and
- 2. Soveraigne Power Cannot Be Forfeited
- 3. No Man Can Without Injustice Protest Against The
- 4. The Soveraigns Actions Cannot Be Justly Accused By The Subject
- 5. What Soever The Soveraigne Doth, Is Unpunishable By The Subject
- 6. The Soveraigne Is Judge Of What Is Necessary For The Peace
- And Defence Of His Subjects
- And Judge Of What Doctrines Are Fit To Be Taught Them
- 7. The Right Of Making Rules, Whereby The Subject May
- Every Man Know What Is So His Owne, As No Other Subject
- 8. To Him Also Belongeth The Right Of All Judicature
- And Decision Of Controversies:
- 9. And Of Making War, And Peace, As He Shall Think Best:
- 10. And Of Choosing All Counsellours, And Ministers,
- Both Of Peace, And Warre:
- 11. And Of Rewarding, And Punishing, And That (Where No
- Former Law hath Determined The Measure Of It) Arbitrary:
- 12. And Of Honour And Order
- These Rights Are Indivisible
- And Can By No Grant Passe Away Without Direct
- Renouncing Of The Soveraign Power
- The Power And Honour Of Subjects Vanisheth In The Presence
- Soveraigne Power Not Hurtfull As The Want Of It,
- And The Hurt Proceeds For The Greatest Part From Not
- CHAPTER XIX. OF THE SEVERALL KINDS OF COMMON-WEALTH BY INSTITUTION,
- AND OF SUCCESSION TO THE SOVERAIGNE POWER
- The Different Formes Of Common-wealths But Three
- Tyranny And Oligarchy, But Different Names Of Monarchy, And Aristocracy
- Subordinate Representatives Dangerous
- Comparison Of Monarchy, With Soveraign Assemblyes
- Of The Right Of Succession
- Succession Passeth By Expresse Words;
- Or, By Not Controlling A Custome;
- Or, By Presumption Of Naturall Affection
- To Dispose Of The Succession, Though To A King Of Another Nation,
- CHAPTER XX. OF DOMINION PATERNALL AND DESPOTICALL
- Wherein Different From A Common-wealth By Institution
- The Rights Of Soveraignty The Same In Both
- Dominion Paternall How Attained Not By Generation, But By Contract
- Or Education;
- Or Precedent Subjection Of One Of The Parents To The Other
- The Right Of Succession Followeth The Rules Of The Rights Of Possession
- Despoticall Dominion, How Attained
- Not By The Victory, But By The Consent Of The Vanquished
- Difference Between A Family And A Kingdom
- The Right Of Monarchy From Scripture
- Soveraign Power Ought In All Common-wealths To Be Absolute
- CHAPTER XXI. OF THE LIBERTY OF SUBJECTS
- Liberty What
- What It Is To Be Free
- Feare And Liberty Consistent
- Liberty And Necessity Consistent
- Artificiall Bonds, Or Covenants
- Liberty Of Subjects Consisteth In Liberty From Covenants
- Liberty Of The Subject Consistent With Unlimited Power Of The Soveraign
- The Liberty Which Writers Praise, Is The Liberty Of Soveraigns;
- Liberty Of The Subject How To Be Measured
- Subjects Have Liberty To Defend Their Own Bodies,
- Even Against Them That Lawfully Invade Them
- Are Not Bound To Hurt Themselves;
- Nor To Warfare, Unless They Voluntarily Undertake It
- The Greatest Liberty Of Subjects, Dependeth On The Silence Of The Law
- In What Cases Subjects Absolved Of Their Obedience To Their Soveraign
- In Case Of Captivity
- In Case The Soveraign Cast Off The Government From Himself And Heyrs
- In Case Of Banishment
- In Case The Soveraign Render Himself Subject To Another
- CHAPTER XXII. OF SYSTEMES SUBJECT, POLITICALL, AND PRIVATE
- The Divers Sorts Of Systemes Of People
- In All Bodies Politique The Power Of The Representative Is Limited
- By Letters Patents
- And The Lawes
- When The Representative Is One Man, His Unwarranted Acts His Own Onely
- When It Is An Assembly, It Is The Act Of Them That Assented Onely
- When It Is An Assembly, They Onely Are Liable That Have Assented
- If The Debt Be To One Of The Assembly, The Body Onely Is Obliged
- Protestation Against The Decrees Of Bodies Politique
- Bodies Politique For Government Of A Province, Colony, Or Town
- Bodies Politique For Ordering Of Trade
- A Bodie Politique For Counsel To Be Give To The Soveraign
- A Regular Private Body, Lawfull, As A Family
- Private Bodies Regular, But Unlawfull
- Systemes Irregular, Such As Are Private Leagues
- Secret Cabals
- Feuds Of Private Families
- Factions For Government
- CHAPTER XXIII. OF THE PUBLIQUE MINISTERS OF SOVERAIGN POWER
- Publique Minister Who
- Ministers For The Generall Administration
- For Speciall Administration, As For Oeconomy
- For Instruction Of The People
- For Judicature
- For Execution
- Counsellers Without Other Employment Then To Advise
- Are Not Publique Ministers
- CHAPTER XXIV. OF THE NUTRITION, AND PROCREATION OF A COMMON-WEALTH
- And The Right Of Distribution Of Them
- All Private Estates Of Land Proceed Originally
- From The Arbitrary Distribution Of The Soveraign
- Propriety Of A Subject Excludes Not The Dominion Of The Soveraign,
- But Onely Of Another Subject
- The Publique Is Not To Be Dieted
- The Places And Matter Of Traffique Depend, As Their Distribution,
- The Laws Of Transferring Property Belong Also To The Soveraign
- Mony The Bloud Of A Common-wealth
- The Conduits And Way Of Mony To The Publique Use
- The Children Of A Common-wealth Colonies
- CHAPTER XXV. OF COUNSELL
- Counsell What
- Differences Between Command And Counsell
- Exhortation And Dehortation What
- Differences Of Fit And Unfit Counsellours
- CHAPTER XXVI. OF CIVILL LAWES
- Civill Law what
- The Soveraign Is Legislator
- And Not Subject To Civill Law
- Use, A Law Not By Vertue Of Time, But Of The Soveraigns Consent
- The Law Of Nature, And The Civill Law Contain Each Other
- Provinciall Lawes Are Not Made By Custome, But By The Soveraign Power
- Some Foolish Opinions Of Lawyers Concerning The Making Of Lawes
- Law Made, If Not Also Made Known, Is No Law
- Unwritten Lawes Are All Of Them Lawes Of Nature
- Nothing Is Law Where The Legislator Cannot Be Known
- Difference Between Verifying And Authorising
- The Law Verifyed By The Subordinate Judge
- By The Publique Registers
- By Letters Patent, And Publique Seale
- The Interpretation Of The Law Dependeth On The Soveraign Power
- All Lawes Need Interpretation
- The Authenticall Interpretation Of Law Is Not That Of Writers
- The Interpreter Of The Law Is The Judge Giving Sentence Viva Voce
- The Sentence Of A Judge, Does Not Bind Him, Or Another Judge
- To Give Like Sentence In Like Cases Ever After
- The Difference Between The Letter And Sentence Of The Law
- The Abilities Required In A Judge
- Divisions Of Law
- Another Division Of Law
- Divine Positive Law How Made Known To Be Law
- Another Division Of Lawes
- A Fundamentall Law What
- Difference Between Law And Right
- And Between A Law And A Charter
- CHAPTER XXVII. OF CRIMES, EXCUSES, AND EXTENUATIONS
- A Crime What
- Where No Civill Law Is, There Is No Crime
- Ignorance Of The Law Of Nature Excuseth No Man
- Ignorance Of The Civill Law Excuseth Sometimes
- Ignorance Of The Soveraign Excuseth Not
- Ignorance Of The Penalty Excuseth Not
- Punishments Declared Before The Fact, Excuse From Greater Punishments
- Nothing Can Be Made A Crime By A Law Made After The Fact
- False Principles Of Right And Wrong Causes Of Crime
- False Teachers Mis-interpreting The Law Of Nature Secondly, by false
- And False Inferences From True Principles, By Teachers
- By Their Passions;
- Presumption Of Riches
- And Friends
- Wisedome
- Hatred, Lust, Ambition, Covetousnesse, Causes Of Crime
- Fear Sometimes Cause Of Crime, As When The Danger Is Neither Present,
- Crimes Not Equall
- Totall Excuses
- Excuses Against The Author
- Presumption Of Power, Aggravateth
- Evill Teachers, Extenuate
- Examples Of Impunity, Extenuate
- Praemeditation, Aggravateth
- Tacite Approbation Of The Soveraign, Extenuates
- Comparison Of Crimes From Their Effects
- Laesae Majestas
- Bribery And False Testimony
-
- Depeculation
- Counterfeiting Authority
- Crimes Against Private Men Compared
- Publique Crimes What
- CHAPTER XXVIII. OF PUNISHMENTS, AND REWARDS
- The Definition Of Punishment
- Right To Punish Whence Derived
- Private Injuries, And Revenges No Punishments
- Nor Denyall Of Preferment
- Nor Pain Inflicted Without Publique Hearing
- Nor Pain Inflicted By Usurped Power
- Nor Pain Inflicted Without Respect To The Future Good
- Naturall Evill Consequences, No Punishments
- Hurt Inflicted, If Lesse Than The Benefit Of Transgressing,
- Where The Punishment Is Annexed To The Law, A Greater Hurt Is Not
- Punishment, But Hostility
- Hurt Inflicted For A Fact Done Before The Law, No Punishment
- The Representative Of The Common-wealth Unpunishable
- Hurt To Revolted Subjects Is Done By Right Of War, Not
- Punishments Corporall
- Capitall
- Ignominy
- Imprisonment
- Exile
- The Punishment Of Innocent Subjects Is Contrary To The Law Of Nature
- But The Harme Done To Innocents In War, Not So
- Reward, Is Either Salary, Or Grace
- Benefits Bestowed For Fear, Are Not Rewards
- Salaries Certain And Casuall
- CHAPTER XXIX. OF THOSE THINGS THAT WEAKEN, OR TEND TO THE DISSOLUTION OF
- Want Of Absolute Power
- Private Judgement Of Good and Evill
- Erroneous Conscience
- Pretence Of Inspiration
- Subjecting The Soveraign Power To Civill Lawes
- Attributing Of Absolute Propriety To The Subjects
- Dividing Of The Soveraign Power
- Imitation Of Neighbour Nations
- Imitation Of The Greeks, And Romans
- Mixt Government
- Want Of Mony
- Monopolies And Abuses Of Publicans
- Popular Men
- Excessive Greatnesse Of A Town, Multitude Of Corporations
- Liberty Of Disputing Against Soveraign Power
- Dissolution Of The Common-wealth
- CHAPTER XXX. OF THE OFFICE OF THE SOVERAIGN REPRESENTATIVE
- The Procuration Of The Good Of The People
- By Instruction & Lawes
- Against The Duty Of A Soveraign To Relinquish Any Essentiall Right
- of Soveraignty Or Not To See The People Taught The Grounds Of Them
- Objection Of Those That Say There Are No Principles Of Reason For
- Objection From The Incapacity Of The Vulgar
- Subjects Are To Be Taught, Not To Affect Change Of Government
- Nor Adhere (Against The Soveraign) To Popular Men
- And To Have Dayes Set Apart To Learn Their Duty
- And To Honour Their Parents
- And To Avoyd Doing Of Injury:
- And To Do All This Sincerely From The Heart
- The Use Of Universities
- Equall Taxes
- Publique Charity
- Prevention Of Idlenesse
- Good Lawes What
- Such As Are Necessary
- Such As Are Perspicuous
- Punishments
- Rewards
- Counsellours
- Commanders
- CHAPTER XXXI. OF THE KINGDOME OF GOD BY NATURE
- The Scope Of The Following Chapters
- Who Are Subjects In The Kingdome Of God
- A Threefold Word Of God, Reason, Revelation, Prophecy
- Sinne Not The Cause Of All Affliction
- Divine Lawes
- Honour And Worship What
- Severall Signes Of Honour
- Worship Naturall And Arbitrary
- Worship Commanded And Free
- Worship Publique And Private
- The End Of Worship
- Attributes Of Divine Honour
- Actions That Are Signes Of Divine Honour
- Publique Worship Consisteth In Uniformity
- All Attributes Depend On The Lawes Civill
- Not All Actions
- Naturall Punishments
- The Conclusion Of The Second Part
- PART III. OF A CHRISTIAN COMMON-WEALTH
- CHAPTER XXXII. OF THE PRINCIPLES OF CHRISTIAN POLITIQUES
- What It Is To Captivate The Understanding
- How God Speaketh To Men
- By What Marks Prophets Are Known
- The Marks Of A Prophet In The Old Law, Miracles, And Doctrine
- Miracles Ceasing, Prophets Cease, The Scripture Supplies Their Place
- CHAPTER XXXIII. OF THE NUMBER, ANTIQUITY, SCOPE, AUTHORITY,
- AND INTERPRETERS OF THE BOOKS OF HOLY SCRIPTURES
- Of The Books Of Holy Scripture
- Their Antiquity
- The Pentateuch Not Written By Moses
- The Book of Joshua Written After His Time
- The Booke Of Judges And Ruth Written Long After The Captivity
- The Like Of The Bookes Of Samuel
- The Books Of The Kings, And The Chronicles
- Ezra And Nehemiah
- Esther
- Job
- The Psalter
- The Proverbs
- Ecclesiastes And The Canticles
- The Prophets
- The New Testament
- Their Scope
- The Question Of The Authority Of The Scriptures Stated.
- Their Authority And Interpretation
- CHAPTER XXXIV. OF THE SIGNIFICATION OF SPIRIT, ANGEL, AND INSPIRATION IN
- Body And Spirit How Taken In The Scripture
- Spirit Of God Taken In The Scripture Sometimes For A Wind, Or Breath
- Secondly, For Extraordinary Gifts Of The Understanding
- Thirdly, For Extraordinary Affections
- Fourthly, For The Gift Of Prediction By Dreams And Visions
- Fiftly, For Life
- Sixtly, For A Subordination To Authority
- Seventhly, For Aeriall Bodies
- Angel What
- Inspiration What
- CHAPTER XXXV. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF KINGDOME OF GOD, OF
- Kingdom Of God Taken By Divines Metaphorically But In The Scriptures
- The Originall Of The Kingdome Of God
- That The Kingdome Of God Is Properly His Civill Soveraignty Over
- A Peculiar People By Pact
- Sacred What
- Degrees of Sanctity
- Sacrament
- CHAPTER XXXVI. OF THE WORD OF GOD, AND OF PROPHETS
- Word What
- The Words Spoken By God And Concerning God, Both Are Called Gods Word
- Secondly, For The Effect Of His Word
- Thirdly, For The Words Of Reason And Equity
- Divers Acceptions Of The Word Prophet
- Praediction Of Future Contingents, Not Alwaies Prophecy
- The Manner How God Hath Spoken To The Prophets
- To The Extraordinary Prophets Of The Old Testament He Spake
- God Sometimes Also Spake By Lots
- Every Man Ought To Examine The Probability Of A Pretended Prophets
- All Prophecy But Of The Soveraign Prophet Is To Be Examined
- CHAPTER XXXVII. OF MIRACLES, AND THEIR USE
- A Miracle Is A Work That Causeth Admiration
- And Must Therefore Be Rare, Whereof There Is No Naturall Cause Known
- That Which Seemeth A Miracle To One Man, May Seem Otherwise To Another
- The End Of Miracles
- The Definition Of A Miracle
- That Men Are Apt To Be Deceived By False Miracles
- Cautions Against The Imposture Of Miracles
- CHAPTER XXXVIII. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF ETERNALL LIFE,
- HELL, SALVATION, THE WORLD TO COME, AND REDEMPTION
- Place Of Adams Eternity If He Had Not Sinned, The Terrestrial Paradise
- Texts Concerning The Place Of Life Eternall For Beleevers
- Ascension Into Heaven
- The Place After Judgment, Of Those Who Were Never In The Kingdome
- Of God, Or Having Been In, Are Cast Out
- The Congregation Of Giants
- Lake Of Fire
- Utter Darknesse
- Gehenna, And Tophet
- Of The Literall Sense Of The Scripture Concerning Hell
- Satan, Devill, Not Proper Names, But Appellatives
- Torments Of Hell
- The Joyes Of Life Eternall, And Salvation The Same Thing,
- Salvation From Sin, And From Misery, All One
- The Place Of Eternall Salvation
- Redemption
- CHAPTER XXXIX. OF THE SIGNIFICATION IN SCRIPTURE OF THE WORD CHURCH
- Church The Lords House
- Ecclesia Properly What
- In What Sense The Church Is One Person Church Defined
- A Christian Common-wealth, And A Church All One
- CHAPTER XL
- OF THE RIGHTS OF THE KINGDOME OF GOD, IN ABRAHAM, MOSES, HIGH PRIESTS,
- The Soveraign Rights Of Abraham
- Abraham Had The Sole Power Of Ordering The Religion Of His Own People
- No Pretence Of Private Spirit Against The Religion Of Abraham
- Abraham Sole Judge, And Interpreter Of What God Spake
- The Authority Of Moses Whereon Grounded
- Moses Was (Under God) Soveraign Of The Jews, All His Own Time,
- Though Aaron Had The Priesthood
- All Spirits Were Subordinate To The Spirit Of Moses
- After Moses The Soveraignty Was In The High Priest
- Of The Soveraign Power Between The Time Of Joshua And Of Saul
- Of The Rights Of The Kings Of Israel
- The Practice Of Supremacy In Religion, Was Not In The Time Of The Kings,
- According To The Right Thereof
- After The Captivity The Jews Had No Setled Common-wealth
- During the Captivity, the Jews had no Common-wealth at all
- CHAPTER XLI. OF THE OFFICE OF OUR BLESSED SAVIOUR
- Three Parts Of The Office Of Christ
- His Office As A Redeemer
- Christs Kingdome Not Of This World
- The End Of Christs Comming Was To Renew The Covenant Of The Kingdome
- Of God, And To Perswade The Elect To Imbrace It, Which Was The Second
- Part Of His Office
- The Preaching Of Christ Not Contrary To The Then Law Of The Jews,
- The Third Part Of His Office Was To Be King (Under His Father)
- Christs Authority In The Kingdome Of God Subordinate To His Father
- One And The Same God Is The Person Represented By Moses, And By Christ
- CHAPTER XLII. OF POWER ECCLESIASTICALL
- Of The Holy Spirit That Fel On The Apostles
- Of The Trinity
- The Power Ecclesiasticall Is But The Power To Teach
- An Argument Thereof, The Power Of Christ Himself
- From The Name Of Regeneration
- From The Comparison Of It, With Fishing, Leaven, Seed
- From The Nature Of Faith:
- From The Authority Christ Hath Left To Civill Princes
- What Christians May Do To Avoid Persecution
- Of Martyrs
- Argument From The Points Of Their Commission
- To Preach
- And Teach
- To Baptize;
- And To Forgive, And Retain Sinnes
- Of Excommunication
- The Use Of Excommunication Without Civill Power.
- Of No Effect Upon An Apostate
- But Upon The Faithfull Only
- For What Fault Lyeth Excommunication
- Of Persons Liable To Excommunication
- Of The Interpreter Of The Scriptures Before Civill Soveraigns
- Of The Power To Make Scripture Law
- Of The Ten Commandements
- Of The Judicial, And Leviticall Law
- The Second Law
- The Old Testament, When Made Canonicall
- Of The Power Of Councells To Make The Scripture Law
- Of The Right Of Constituting Ecclesiasticall Officers In The Time
- Matthias Made Apostle By The Congregation.
- Paul And Barnabas Made Apostles By The Church Of Antioch
- What Offices In The Church Are Magisteriall
- Ordination Of Teachers
- Ministers Of The Church What
- And How Chosen What
- Of Ecclesiasticall Revenue, Under The Law Of Moses
- In Our Saviours Time, And After
- The Civill Soveraign Being A Christian Hath The Right Of Appointing
- The Pastorall Authority Of Soveraigns Only Is De Jure Divino,
- That Of Other Pastors Is Jure Civili
- Christian Kings Have Power To Execute All Manner Of Pastoral Function
- The Civill Soveraigne If A Christian, Is Head Of The Church
- Cardinal Bellarmines Books De Summo Pontifice Considered
- The First Book
- The Second Book
- The Third Book
- The Fourth Book
- Texts For The Infallibility Of The Popes Judgement In Points Of Faith
- Texts For The Same In Point Of Manners
- Of The Popes Temporall Power
- CHAPTER XLIII. OF WHAT IS NECESSARY FOR A MANS RECEPTION INTO THE
- The Difficulty Of Obeying God And Man Both At Once
- Is None To Them That Distinguish Between What Is, And What Is Not
- All That Is Necessary To Salvation Is Contained In Faith And Obedience
- What Obedience Is Necessary;
- And To What Laws
- In The Faith Of A Christian, Who Is The Person Beleeved
- The Causes Of Christian Faith
- Faith Comes By Hearing
- Proved From The Scope Of The Evangelists
- From The Sermons Of The Apostles:
- From The Easinesse Of The Doctrine:
- From Formall And Cleer Texts
- From That It Is The Foundation Of All Other Articles
- In What Sense Other Articles May Be Called Necessary
- That Faith, And Obedience Are Both Of Them Necessary To Salvation
- What Each Of Them Contributes Thereunto
- Obedience To God And To The Civill Soveraign Not Inconsistent
- Or Infidel
- CHAPTER XLIV. OF SPIRITUALL DARKNESSE FROM MISINTERPRETATION OF
- The Kingdome Of Darknesse What
- The Church Not Yet Fully Freed Of Darknesse
- Four Causes Of Spirituall Darknesse
- Errors From Misinterpreting The Scriptures, Concerning The Kingdome
- As That The Kingdome Of God Is The Present Church
- And That The Pope Is His Vicar Generall
- And That The Pastors Are The Clergy
- Error From Mistaking Consecration For Conjuration
- Incantation In The Ceremonies Of Baptisme
- In Marriage, In Visitation Of The Sick, And In Consecration Of Places
- Errors From Mistaking Eternall Life, And Everlasting Death
- As The Doctrine Of Purgatory, And Exorcismes, And Invocation Of Saints
- The Texts Alledged For The Doctrines Aforementioned Have Been Answered
- Answer To The Text On Which Beza Infereth
- Explication Of The Place In Mark 9.1
- Abuse Of Some Other Texts In Defence Of The Power Of The Pope
- The Manner Of Consecrations In The Scripture, Was Without Exorcisms
- The Immortality Of Mans Soule, Not Proved By Scripture To Be Of Nature,
- Eternall Torments What
- Answer Of The Texts Alledged For Purgatory
- Places Of The New Testament For Purgatory Answered
- Baptisme For The Dead, How Understood
- CHAPTER XLV. OF DAEMONOLOGY, AND OTHER RELIQUES OF THE RELIGION OF THE
- The Originall Of Daemonology
- What Were The Daemons Of The Ancients
- How That Doctrine Was Spread
- Why Our Saviour Controlled It Not
- The Scriptures Doe Not Teach That Spirits Are Incorporeall
- The Power Of Casting Out Devills, Not The Same It Was In The Primitive
- Another Relique Of Gentilisme, Worshipping Images, Left In The Church
- Answer To Certain Seeming Texts For Images
- What Is Worship
- Distinction Between Divine And Civill Worship
- An Image What Phantasmes
- Fictions; Materiall Images
- Idolatry What
- Scandalous Worship Of Images
- Answer To The Argument From The Cherubins, And Brazen Serpent
- Painting Of Fancies No Idolatry: Abusing Them To Religious Worship Is
- How Idolatry Was Left In The Church
- Canonizing Of Saints
- The Name Of Pontifex
- Procession Of Images
- Wax Candles, And Torches Lighted
- CHAPTER XLVI. OF DARKNESSE FROM VAIN PHILOSOPHY, AND FABULOUS TRADITIONS
- What Philosophy Is
- Prudence No Part Of Philosophy
- No False Doctrine Is Part Of Philosophy
- Nor Learning Taken Upon Credit Of Authors
- Of The Beginnings And Progresse Of Philosophy
- Of The Schools Of Philosophy Amongst The Athenians
- Of The Schools Of The Jews
- The Schoole Of Graecians Unprofitable
- The Schools Of The Jews Unprofitable
- University What It Is
- Errors Brought Into Religion From Aristotles Metaphysiques
- Errors Concerning Abstract Essences
- Nunc-stans
- One Body In Many Places, And Many Bodies In One Place At Once
- Absurdities In Naturall Philosophy, As Gravity The Cause Of Heavinesse
- Quantity Put Into Body Already Made
- Powring In Of Soules
- Ubiquity Of Apparition
- Will, The Cause Of Willing
- Ignorance An Occult Cause
- One Makes The Things Incongruent, Another The Incongruity
- Private Appetite The Rule Of Publique Good:
- And That Lawfull Marriage Is Unchastity
- And That All Government But Popular, Is Tyranny
- That Not Men, But Law Governs
- Laws Over The Conscience
- Private Interpretation Of Law
- Language Of Schoole-Divines
- Errors From Tradition
- Suppression Of Reason
- CHAPTER XLVII. OF THE BENEFIT THAT PROCEEDETH FROM SUCH DARKNESSE,
- He That Receiveth Benefit By A Fact, Is Presumed To Be The Author
- That The Church Militant Is The Kingdome Of God, Was First Taught By
- And Maintained Also By The Presbytery
- Infallibility
- Subjection Of Bishops
- Exemptions Of The Clergy
- The Names Of Sacerdotes, And Sacrifices
- The Sacramentation Of Marriage
- The Single Life Of Priests
- Auricular Confession
- Canonization Of Saints, And Declaring Of Martyrs
- Transubstantiation, Penance, Absolution
- Purgatory, Indulgences, Externall Works
- Daemonology And Exorcism
- School-Divinity
- The Authors Of Spirituall Darknesse, Who They Be
- Comparison Of The Papacy With The Kingdome Of Fayries
- A REVIEW, AND CONCLUSION
LEVIATHAN
By Thomas Hobbes
1651
Thomas Hobbes of Malmesbury
TO MY MOST HONOR'D FRIEND Mr. FRANCIS GODOLPHIN of GODOLPHIN
HONOR'D SIR.
Your most worthy Brother Mr SIDNEY GODOLPHIN, when he lived, was pleas'd to think my studies something, and otherwise to oblige me, as you know, with reall testimonies of his good opinion, great in themselves, and the greater for the worthinesse of his person. For there is not any vertue that disposeth a man, either to the service of God, or to the service of his Country, to Civill Society, or private Friendship, that did not manifestly appear in his conversation, not as acquired by necessity, or affected upon occasion, but inhaerent, and shining in a generous constitution of his nature. Therefore in honour and gratitude to him, and with devotion to your selfe, I humbly Dedicate unto you this my discourse of Common-wealth. I know not how the world will receive it, nor how it may reflect on those that shall seem to favour it. For in a way beset with those that contend on one side for too great Liberty, and on the other side for too much Authority, 'tis hard to passe between the points of both unwounded. But yet, me thinks, the endeavour to advance the Civill Power, should not be by the Civill Power condemned; nor private men, by reprehending it, declare they think that Power too great. Besides, I speak not of the men, but (in the Abstract) of the Seat of Power, (like to those simple and unpartiall creatures in the Roman Capitol, that with their noyse defended those within it, not because they were they, but there) offending none, I think, but those without, or such within (if there be any such) as favour them. That which perhaps may most offend, are certain Texts of Holy Scripture, alledged by me to other purpose than ordinarily they use to be by others. But I have done it with due submission, and also (in order to my Subject) necessarily; for they are the Outworks of the Enemy, from whence they impugne the Civill Power. If notwithstanding this, you find my labour generally decryed, you may be pleased to excuse your selfe, and say that I am a man that love my own opinions, and think all true I say, that I honoured your Brother, and honour you, and have presum'd on that, to assume the Title (without your knowledge) of being, as I am,
Sir,
Your most humble, and most obedient servant, Thomas Hobbes.
Paris APRILL 15/25 1651.
THE INTRODUCTION
Nature (the art whereby God hath made and governes the world) is by the art of man, as in many other things, so in this also imitated, that it can make an Artificial Animal. For seeing life is but a motion of Limbs, the begining whereof is in some principall part within; why may we not say, that all Automata (Engines that move themselves by springs and wheeles as doth a watch) have an artificiall life? For what is the Heart, but a Spring; and the Nerves, but so many Strings; and the Joynts, but so many Wheeles, giving motion to the whole Body, such as was intended by the Artificer? Art goes yet further, imitating that Rationall and most excellent worke of Nature, Man. For by Art is created that great LEVIATHAN called a COMMON-WEALTH, or STATE, (in latine CIVITAS) which is but an Artificiall Man; though of greater stature and strength than the Naturall, for whose protection and defence it was intended; and in which, the Soveraignty is an Artificiall Soul, as giving life and motion to the whole body; The Magistrates, and other Officers of Judicature and Execution, artificiall Joynts; Reward and Punishment (by which fastned to the seat of the Soveraignty, every joynt and member is moved to performe his duty) are the Nerves, that do the same in the Body Naturall; The Wealth and Riches of all the particular members, are the Strength; Salus Populi (the Peoples Safety) its Businesse; Counsellors, by whom all things needfull for it to know, are suggested unto it, are the Memory; Equity and Lawes, an artificiall Reason and Will; Concord, Health; Sedition, Sicknesse; and Civill War, Death. Lastly, the Pacts and Covenants, by which the parts of this Body Politique were at first made, set together, and united, resemble that Fiat, or the Let Us Make Man, pronounced by God in the Creation.
To describe the Nature of this Artificiall man, I will consider
First the Matter thereof, and the Artificer; both which is Man.
Secondly, How, and by what Covenants it is made; what are the Rights and just Power or Authority of a Soveraigne; and what it is that Preserveth and Dissolveth it.
Thirdly, what is a Christian Common-Wealth.
Lastly, what is the Kingdome of Darkness.
Concerning the first, there is a saying much usurped of late, That Wisedome is acquired, not by reading of Books, but of Men. Consequently whereunto, those persons, that for the most part can give no other proof of being wise, take great delight to shew what they think they have read in men, by uncharitable censures of one another behind their backs. But there is another saying not of late understood, by which they might learn truly to read one another, if they would take the pains; and that is, Nosce Teipsum, Read Thy Self: which was not meant, as it is now used, to countenance, either the barbarous state of men in power, towards their inferiors; or to encourage men of low degree, to a sawcie behaviour towards their betters; But to teach us, that for the similitude of the thoughts, and Passions of one man, to the thoughts, and Passions of another, whosoever looketh into himselfe, and considereth what he doth, when he does Think, Opine, Reason, Hope, Feare, &c, and upon what grounds; he shall thereby read and know, what are the thoughts, and Passions of all other men, upon the like occasions. I say the similitude of Passions, which are the same in all men, Desire, Feare, Hope, &c; not the similitude or The Objects of the Passions, which are the things Desired, Feared, Hoped, &c: for these the constitution individuall, and particular education do so vary, and they are so easie to be kept from our knowledge, that the characters of mans heart, blotted and confounded as they are, with dissembling, lying, counterfeiting, and erroneous doctrines, are legible onely to him that searcheth hearts. And though by mens actions wee do discover their designee sometimes; yet to do it without comparing them with our own, and distinguishing all circumstances, by which the case may come to be altered, is to decypher without a key, and be for the most part deceived, by too much trust, or by too much diffidence; as he that reads, is himselfe a good or evill man.
But let one man read another by his actions never so perfectly, it serves him onely with his acquaintance, which are but few. He that is to govern a whole Nation, must read in himselfe, not this, or that particular man; but Man-kind; which though it be hard to do, harder than to learn any Language, or Science; yet, when I shall have set down my own reading orderly, and perspicuously, the pains left another, will be onely to consider, if he also find not the same in himselfe. For this kind of Doctrine, admitteth no other Demonstration.
PART 1 OF MAN
CHAPTER I. OF SENSE
Concerning the Thoughts of man, I will consider them first Singly, and afterwards in Trayne, or dependance upon one another. Singly, they are every one a Representation or Apparence, of some quality, or other Accident of a body without us; which is commonly called an Object. Which Object worketh on the Eyes, Eares, and other parts of mans body; and by diversity of working, produceth diversity of Apparences.
The Originall of them all, is that which we call Sense; (For there is no conception in a mans mind, which hath not at first, totally, or by parts, been begotten upon the organs of Sense.) The rest are derived from that originall.
To know the naturall cause of Sense, is not very necessary to the business now in hand; and I have els-where written of the same at large. Nevertheless, to fill each part of my present method, I will briefly deliver the same in this place.
The cause of Sense, is the Externall Body, or Object, which presseth the organ proper to each Sense, either immediatly, as in the Tast and Touch; or mediately, as in Seeing, Hearing, and Smelling: which pressure, by the mediation of Nerves, and other strings, and membranes of the body, continued inwards to the Brain, and Heart, causeth there a resistance, or counter-pressure, or endeavour of the heart, to deliver it self: which endeavour because Outward, seemeth to be some matter without. And this Seeming, or Fancy, is that which men call sense; and consisteth, as to the Eye, in a Light, or Colour Figured; To the Eare, in a Sound; To the Nostrill, in an Odour; To the Tongue and Palat, in a Savour; and to the rest of the body, in Heat, Cold, Hardnesse, Softnesse, and such other qualities, as we discern by Feeling. All which qualities called Sensible, are in the object that causeth them, but so many several motions of the matter, by which it presseth our organs diversly. Neither in us that are pressed, are they anything els, but divers motions; (for motion, produceth nothing but motion.) But their apparence to us is Fancy, the same waking, that dreaming. And as pressing, rubbing, or striking the Eye, makes us fancy a light; and pressing the Eare, produceth a dinne; so do the bodies also we see, or hear, produce the same by their strong, though unobserved action, For if those Colours, and Sounds, were in the Bodies, or Objects that cause them, they could not bee severed from them, as by glasses, and in Ecchoes by reflection, wee see they are; where we know the thing we see, is in one place; the apparence, in another. And though at some certain distance, the reall, and very object seem invested with the fancy it begets in us; Yet still the object is one thing, the image or fancy is another. So that Sense in all cases, is nothing els but originall fancy, caused (as I have said) by the pressure, that is, by the motion, of externall things upon our Eyes, Eares, and other organs thereunto ordained.
But the Philosophy-schooles, through all the Universities of Christendome, grounded upon certain Texts of Aristotle, teach another doctrine; and say, For the cause of Vision, that the thing seen, sendeth forth on every side a Visible Species(in English) a Visible Shew, Apparition, or Aspect, or a Being Seen; the receiving whereof into the Eye, is Seeing. And for the cause of Hearing, that the thing heard, sendeth forth an Audible Species, that is, an Audible Aspect, or Audible Being Seen; which entring at the Eare, maketh Hearing. Nay for the cause of Understanding also, they say the thing Understood sendeth forth Intelligible Species, that is, an Intelligible Being Seen; which comming into the Understanding, makes us Understand. I say not this, as disapproving the use of Universities: but because I am to speak hereafter of their office in a Common-wealth, I must let you see on all occasions by the way, what things would be amended in them; amongst which the frequency of insignificant Speech is one.
CHAPTER II. OF IMAGINATION
That when a thing lies still, unlesse somewhat els stirre it, it will lye still for ever, is a truth that no man doubts of. But that when a thing is in motion, it will eternally be in motion, unless somewhat els stay it, though the reason be the same, (namely, that nothing can change it selfe,) is not so easily assented to. For men measure, not onely other men, but all other things, by themselves: and because they find themselves subject after motion to pain, and lassitude, think every thing els growes weary of motion, and seeks repose of its own accord; little considering, whether it be not some other motion, wherein that desire of rest they find in themselves, consisteth. From hence it is, that the Schooles say, Heavy bodies fall downwards, out of an appetite to rest, and to conserve their nature in that place which is most proper for them; ascribing appetite, and Knowledge of what is good for their conservation, (which is more than man has) to things inanimate absurdly.
When a Body is once in motion, it moveth (unless something els hinder it) eternally; and whatsoever hindreth it, cannot in an instant, but in time, and by degrees quite extinguish it: And as wee see in the water, though the wind cease, the waves give not over rowling for a long time after; so also it happeneth in that motion, which is made in the internall parts of a man, then, when he Sees, Dreams, &c. For after the object is removed, or the eye shut, wee still retain an image of the thing seen, though more obscure than when we see it. And this is it, that Latines call Imagination, from the image made in seeing; and apply the same, though improperly, to all the other senses. But the Greeks call it Fancy; which signifies Apparence, and is as proper to one sense, as to another. Imagination therefore is nothing but Decaying Sense; and is found in men, and many other living Creatures, as well sleeping, as waking.
Memory
The decay of Sense in men waking, is not the decay of the motion made in sense; but an obscuring of it, in such manner, as the light of the Sun obscureth the light of the Starres; which starrs do no less exercise their vertue by which they are visible, in the day, than in the night. But because amongst many stroaks, which our eyes, eares, and other organs receive from externall bodies, the predominant onely is sensible; therefore the light of the Sun being predominant, we are not affected with the action of the starrs. And any object being removed from our eyes, though the impression it made in us remain; yet other objects more present succeeding, and working on us, the Imagination of the past is obscured, and made weak; as the voyce of a man is in the noyse of the day. From whence it followeth, that the longer the time is, after the sight, or Sense of any object, the weaker is the Imagination. For the continuall change of mans body, destroyes in time the parts which in sense were moved: So that the distance of time, and of place, hath one and the same effect in us. For as at a distance of place, that which wee look at, appears dimme, and without distinction of the smaller parts; and as Voyces grow weak, and inarticulate: so also after great distance of time, our imagination of the Past is weak; and wee lose( for example) of Cities wee have seen, many particular Streets; and of Actions, many particular Circumstances. This Decaying Sense, when wee would express the thing it self, (I mean Fancy it selfe,) wee call Imagination, as I said before; But when we would express the Decay, and signifie that the Sense is fading, old, and past, it is called Memory. So that Imagination and Memory, are but one thing, which for divers considerations hath divers names.
Much memory, or memory of many things, is called Experience. Againe, Imagination being only of those things which have been formerly perceived by Sense, either all at once, or by parts at severall times; The former, (which is the imagining the whole object, as it was presented to the sense) is Simple Imagination; as when one imagineth a man, or horse, which he hath seen before. The other is Compounded; as when from the sight of a man at one time, and of a horse at another, we conceive in our mind a Centaure. So when a man compoundeth the image of his own person, with the image of the actions of an other man; as when a man imagins himselfe a Hercules, or an Alexander, (which happeneth often to them that are much taken with reading of Romants) it is a compound imagination, and properly but a Fiction of the mind. There be also other Imaginations that rise in men, (though waking) from the great impression made in sense; As from gazing upon the Sun, the impression leaves an image of the Sun before our eyes a long time after; and from being long and vehemently attent upon Geometricall Figures, a man shall in the dark, (though awake) have the Images of Lines, and Angles before his eyes: which kind of Fancy hath no particular name; as being a thing that doth not commonly fall into mens discourse.
Dreams
The imaginations of them that sleep, are those we call Dreams. And these also (as all other Imaginations) have been before, either totally, or by parcells in the Sense. And because in sense, the Brain, and Nerves, which are the necessary Organs of sense, are so benummed in sleep, as not easily to be moved by the action of Externall Objects, there can happen in sleep, no Imagination; and therefore no Dreame, but what proceeds from the agitation of the inward parts of mans body; which inward parts, for the connexion they have with the Brayn, and other Organs, when they be distempered, do keep the same in motion; whereby the Imaginations there formerly made, appeare as if a man were waking; saving that the Organs of Sense being now benummed, so as there is no new object, which can master and obscure them with a more vigorous impression, a Dreame must needs be more cleare, in this silence of sense, than are our waking thoughts. And hence it cometh to pass, that it is a hard matter, and by many thought impossible to distinguish exactly between Sense and Dreaming. For my part, when I consider, that in Dreames, I do not often, nor constantly think of the same Persons, Places, Objects, and Actions that I do waking; nor remember so long a trayne of coherent thoughts, Dreaming, as at other times; And because waking I often observe the absurdity of Dreames, but never dream of the absurdities of my waking Thoughts; I am well satisfied, that being awake, I know I dreame not; though when I dreame, I think my selfe awake.
And seeing dreames are caused by the distemper of some of the inward parts of the Body; divers distempers must needs cause different Dreams. And hence it is, that lying cold breedeth Dreams of Feare, and raiseth the thought and Image of some fearfull object (the motion from the brain to the inner parts, and from the inner parts to the Brain being reciprocall:) and that as Anger causeth heat in some parts of the Body, when we are awake; so when we sleep, the over heating of the same parts causeth Anger, and raiseth up in the brain the Imagination of an Enemy. In the same manner; as naturall kindness, when we are awake causeth desire; and desire makes heat in certain other parts of the body; so also, too much heat in those parts, while wee sleep, raiseth in the brain an imagination of some kindness shewn. In summe, our Dreams are the reverse of our waking Imaginations; The motion when we are awake, beginning at one end; and when we Dream, at another.
Apparitions Or Visions